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\begin{document}

\title{A MODULAR PHOTOSYNTHETIC MICROBIAL FUEL CELL WITH INTERCHANGEABLE ALGAE
SOLAR COMPARTMENTS}



\author[1]{ Daniel Fleury}%
\affil[1]{John Marshall }%


\vspace{-1em}



  
  \date{May 24, 2024}


\begingroup
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\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{abstract}
\par\null

This project trial provides a novel small-scale solar harnessing
technology which increases environmental effectiveness while maintaining
optimal energy efficiency. Although modern solar panels are purposed in
producing clean energy, the materials and byproducts of solar cell
manufacturing are not eco-friendly. Thus, considering an organic,
renewable and energy efficient solar cell model is necessary.
Investigations explored multiple highly-photosynthetic algal species
which were later integrated into a controlled microbial fuel cell system
(MFC). The MFC\textbf{1} contained algae culture species, including
Chlorella Vulgaris, Nannochloropsis, and Spirulina . Parameters, such as
periodic lipid yields, algal biomass, and light absorption were assessed
throughout the cultivation process while maintaining a controlled
environment. After 30 days of cultivation, the culture was transferred
to an anode chamber in a closed loop small-scale MFC. Following the
first day of algae transfer, microwatt output was analyzed from
independent test trials. Statistical comparisons were drawn between
electrical energy and light absorption, finding a generally positive
correlation. Thus, it is concluded that mid-high algae concentrations
significantly increased electrical micro-wattage in highly absorptive
algal cultures. The optimal electric levels occurred at 286 A
(absorbance) and 35 mW- Nannochloropsis, 123 A- Chlorella (30.2 mW), and
142 A (31 mW)- Spirulina culture. Due to higher absorption rates in the
Nannochloropsis culture, this corresponds with the record high voltage
levels. The analysis of data indicates that Algae-based MFCs are proven
hopeful for alternative high-yield energy production.

\par\null%
\end{abstract}%



\sloppy




\textbf{INTRODUCTION:}

The international standard of the energy sector has been concerning in
its immediate and long term environmental impact. More specifically, the
continuing environmental and ecological effects of mediums such as
fossil fuels and coal output have influenced phenomenon such as global
warming and the greenhouse effect. However, private and public energy
corporations have experienced slow transitions into renewable energy.
The undeniable root of this lagging changeover comes from world energy
demands in growing populations. Although the most renewable techniques
of energy delivery have been hydropower and biomass, these methods are
unable to sustain mass populations due to its small scale output
systems. The economical magnitude of biomass and hydropower is costly,
due to its geographical limitations (i.e. costly land expansion).
Furthermore, due to the finite availability of biomass, satisfying full
energy demands alone is not possible. Additionally, when considering
small scale biomass energy generation, net energy is easily lost due to
the system's high energy needs. Moreover, the combustion of extraneous
or usable biomass can harm the environment by discharging carbon
dioxide, encouraging possible climatic change. As a result, energy
sustainability, consistency, and environmental efficiency, are not
fulfilled. Similarly, the high yielding biofuel industry poses a
plethora of economic drawbacks. The biofuel sector presents a demanding
cost of production in contrast with the fossil fuel industry. The
ecological facet of biofuel and biomass extraction is also penetrated by
the ineffectiveness of monoculture and the use of fertilizers.
Furthermore, systematic monoculture may deprive soiled nutrients by
cultivating a continuous crop species/genus. In other words, the variety
of crop species is bottlenecked, which reduces nutrients levels.
Extraneous fertilizers may also be deleteriously discharged during the
cultivation process, damaging the surrounding ecosystem. Most
importantly, considerable net energy gains cannot be absorbed with small
scale structures and frameworks of biofuel production. Constructing a
compact and energy efficient utility (in general) for individuals is
impractical with the previously acknowledged energy sources (coal,
fossil fuel, biofuel/biomass). Although industrial scale energy is
essential, a scalable energy system is crucial in all frames of
worldwide economic demand. The current canvas of energy production
presents insufficiency with energy scalability due to the lack of
adjustability and interconnection. The current systems of energy
production do not provide modulation nor convenience in partitioning
energy into separate units.

\textbf{BACKGROUND AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE:}

Energy is a crucial resource proportional to the growth of individual
populations around the globe. The high demands of exponentially growing
groups and populations have constrained the options of energy
production. More specifically, industrializing energy became essential
in meeting population needs and demands. Economically, both fossil fuel
and coal production are the most sufficient fields of immediate energy
availability and output. According to a 2015 energy consumption report
from Blue Sky Energy Partners, the combination of petroleum and coal
expend nearly 52\% of all energy demands in the United States- 36\% Oil
and 18\% Coal (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2016). In
addition to this national survey of energy consumption, a global review
found nearly 62\% of all needs accounted for coal and oil- 33\% Oil and
29.2\% Coal (Columbia University, 2016). International and National
reviews of energy consumption indicate that energy corporations are
ultimately straying away from renewable energy types. The frame of
renewable energy is hindered technologically, as it is limited by
surrounding environmental conditions. More specifically, technologies,
such as solar cells/solar panels, are constrained by the sunlight
exposure in specific regions. The limitations of the renewable and
nonrenewable energy sector create economical barriers, oftentimes being
excluded from developing (3rd world) countries. Studies have presented a
close correlation between both economic growth and energy availability
(Neto et al., 2014). Due to the economic circumstances of 3rd and 2nd
world countries, continuous access to both nonrenewable and renewable
energies is constricted, due to financial limitations of large
capacity/quantity. Contrary to non-renewable energy types, renewable
sources do not suffice the energy market and the economy due to high
initial costs and inconsistency (Giraldo et al., 2014). The economic and
technological impediments of large-scale and non-intuitive renewable
energy sources can be most magnified in impoverished and developing
nations of Africa. Kenya is a developing country which necessitates
biomass and waste combustion as the prime source of fuel. However,
individual houses and facilities experience frequent power outages due
to irregular Electricity production. The central drawback of
irregularity lies in large-scale energy inconsistency. In other words,
developing countries are oftentimes deprived of a smart grid system
which provides stable energy flow to individual facilities, departments,
and residents. Implanting a Smart Grid2, along with Distributed
Generation3, may provide dependable energy flowage. More specifically,
Distributed Generation may integrate electricity and power with
small-scale technologies, which lessens stress on the central grid
system (Vandaele \& Porter, 2015).

\textbf{BIOLOGICAL SOLAR CELLS:}

Biological solar cells have been of particular research interest, due to
the integration of metabolism and its implications in energy production.
This system amalgamates a single species of live microbial organisms,
such as anaerobic bacteria. However, biological materials such as
Eukaryotic organisms (plantae) can be exploited through their
photosynthetic and respiratory properties. Most importantly, the
metabolic pathways can be manipulated by exploiting extraneously
discharged electrons and protons in the media. As an alternative energy
source, Microbial Fuel Cells advantages the sectors of energy and
environmental sustainability by catalyzing naturally produced energy in
growable living conditions (e.g. bioreactor and photobioreactor).
Traditionally, the system houses three divisions/containments- An
isolated Anode chamber, an isolated cathode chamber, and a semipermeable
proton exchange membrane. In addition, the two electrodes (anode and
cathode) are interconnected with conductive wires to form a fully
attached simple circuit. The circuitry system is then completed by the
particle transfer of the proton exchange membrane (PEM). Combining these
three components forms a bioelectrochemical system. As bacteria is
submerged into the anode chamber, freely electrons penetrate through the
wall of the semipermeable membrane into the cathode containment,
outputting electrical current. The proton exchange membrane constantly
transports hydrogen ions to harness electricity. However, due to the
vulnerability of these biological sources (regular pond bacteria) it is
prone to contamination. Therefore, achieving a much more stable and
adaptable microorganism is necessary. In addition, the metabolic
processes of natural bacteria (mostly found in pond ecosystems) have
varying metabolic processes. Thus, seeking a microorganism with great
photosynthetic processes and cell respiration is necessary.

\textbf{RATIONALE:}

Investigating the photosynthetic nature of a novel algae-based
biological solar cells as an alternative to currently manufactured solar
panels is crucial. However, the current lack of environmental efficiency
must be resolved in the modern solar cell model. As a most likely
candidate, microbial fuel cells serve as source of novel experimentation
and test sampling. Microbial fuel cells, as indicated in recent test
trials, harnesses the energy by exchanging Hydrogen Ions from cellular
respiration. However, the significance of photosynthetic algal cultures,
containing Nannochloropsis, Spirulina, and Chlorella, will be
investigated as a substitute for traditional bacteria. The environmental
effectiveness of MFCs creates widespread economic potential in energy
production and absorption through the sustainability of small and large
scale electrical demands . A regenerable solar cell with the use of
multiple algal species will simultaneously deplete carbon dioxide and
produce high lipid yields/high electrical output from an MFC system.

However, situations such as the regenerability, cost effectiveness, and
renewability are still prevalent. By manipulating the operations of a
microbial fuel cell, energy output may be maximized by mimicking
bioreactor culture conditions.

Algae can proliferate at high frequencies, which makes regenerability a
big factor: The regenerability of this microorganism will eventually
accumulate biomass which can be exploited for separate purposes such as
agriculture (agricultural services can use biomass for cultivation). The
photobioreactor component of this experiment will include a controlled
environment. In addition, by using a photobioreactor, this ensures that
there is a harnessing of solar-based energy. Exploiting biological
materials is the criteria of this project due to the considerable
availability of media in varying ecosystems. The high magnitude of
Hydrogen Ion discharge may advantage the energy and environmental
sectors of a small-large scale economy through easy configuration and
clean energy access.

\textbf{METHODS AND PROCEDURES:}

The initial protocol was first initiated with containment of Algae
culture in the Microbial Fuel Cell structure. A Microbial Fuel Cell with
a suitable exchange of Hydrogen Protons and Electrons across the Proton
Exchange Membrane (PEM) was crucial to fully harness the electrochemical
properties of each Algal culture- Chlorella Vulgaris, Spirulina , and
Nannochloropsis. Constant variables were maintained by precisely
quantifying internal conditions and additional attachments (the PEM).
The most basic constants (remaining throughout complete experimentation)
included anodic and cathodic temperatures. Additionally, the
concentrations of Algae culture were regulated at 1 mL of Algal
Culture/10 mL of media. The Algal culture of each genus was obtained at
high concentrations of 8 mL/10 mL of initial media. More specifically,
additional nutrients media was added at concentrations of 1 mg/250 mL.
The most critical constant variables and parameters are listed below,
with sufficient range levels to correctly maintain culture growth:\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{longtable}[]{@{}ll@{}}
\toprule
Parameter Regulated & Optimal Range\tabularnewline
Temperature (\selectlanguage{ngerman}°C) & 16-27\tabularnewline
Salinity (g.l-1) & 12-40\tabularnewline
Light intensity (lux) & 1,500-10,000\tabularnewline
Photoperiod (light: dark) Ratio in Hours & 16:8 - 24:0 (minima -
maxima)\tabularnewline
pH & 8.2-8.7\tabularnewline
\bottomrule
\end{longtable}

\textbf{Table 1.0:} Essential (constant) parameters and conditions
regulated in the Algal MFC cultures. Parameters are presented with the
most optimal ranges/conditions for cultivation. All Algal cultures were
continuously maintained within these minimum to maximum ranges.

The most essential procedures included MFC construction, Algae
cultivation and maintenance, Electrical testing, and supplementary Oil
Yields (optional to experimentation). MFC construction involved
attachable/interconnected 450 mL Anode and Cathode containers to fulfill
the needs of the Algal culture-Cathode interactions. The Proton Exchange
membrane was further composed of an Agar solution brought to boiling
point and later froze at 0\selectlanguage{ngerman}°C (32°F) . The Cathodic chamber was comprised
of an isolated and sterilized (distilled) continuously aerated water.
Following the configuration of the Anodic and Cathodic chamber, with the
integration of the PEM, MFC underwent electrical testing with a
traditional multimeter to detect variations in output levels in each
culture chamber. More importantly, direct correlations between Algal
concentration and electrical levels (mW) were analyzed and discussed.

\par\null

MFC Construction: Designing the Anode and Cathode Chambers

The most simplified design of the MFC containment system involved
interlinking both the Anode and Cathode chamber, sandwiched with a
Proton Exchange Membrane. The parameters of both chambers were equalized
to maintain controlled conditions and environments in each container.
Both chambers held a capacity of 450 mL of Distilled water (Cathode) and
Highly Concentrated Algal culture (Anode). In preparation for the PEM,
\textasciitilde{}10.16 cm diameter circular openings were made,
consistent with the shaping of the circular PEM. The designing of the
PEM system will be further discussed in its specified procedure. The
``suctioning'' nature of the Proton Exchange Membrane enabled both the
Anode and Cathode chamber to converge without any major or minor
leakages to interfere with the exchange process. Conveniently, the
purchased tupperware containers were attachable, making reconfiguration
and modification of the system possible. This further enhanced the theme
of interchangeability and attachability, making immediate immediate
configurations to the energy system possible. After nearly 50 mL of
highly concentrated algae culture was obtained, the culture was
immediately transferred to a 500 mL nutrient rich bioreactor medium
composed of an initial 2 mg of All-Purpose growth media (1 mg/250ml).
Parameters, such as cell concentration, pH, aquatic temperature,
salinity, sterilization, and lux levels were assessed. Cell
concentrations were obtained with a spectrophotometer. After two days of
cultivation, the algae was transferred to a 450 mL MFC anode chamber.
Electrical testing was executed with a multimeter.\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[h!]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/MFC/MFC}
\caption{{The image presents a 3D rendering of the construction of the interlinked
Microbial Fuel Cell system. Additionally, attached tubing, the Proton
Exchange Membrane, and O2 exhaust is exhibited. The Cathode chamber is
featured on the left of the diagram, whereas the Anode chamber is
displayed on the right of the diagram.
{\label{746982}}%
}}
\end{center}
\end{figure}



The transfer system of the Microbial Fuel Cell ensured that the
isolation of cultures was maintained. Furthermore, the containment of
any possible contaminants was prevented with the architectural nature of
the microbial Fuel Cell. Each chamber of the MFC was interconnected with
pvc piping network, regulating and aggregating the nutrient and
biological media of the Anodic and Cathodic regions. Additionally, the
input and output exchange system of the fuel cell made configuration,
attachability, and addition/reduction possible. In other words,
adjusting critical parameters and concentrations was straightforward
through the convenient architectural properties of the MFC. The Anodic
and Cathodic chambers were constructed to mimic the regulatory
conditions of a bioreactor. More specifically, the Anode chamber ensured
stabilization of parameters and critical variables in culture and media
to ensure controlled chamber conditions.

\par\null\par\null\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[h!]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/mfc1/mfc1}
\caption{{The 2D diagram further elaborates the technological specifications of
the Microbial Fuel Cell System. The MFC system is first interlinked by a
PEM (a sandwich structure) with an Anodic and Cathodic chamber. More
importantly, the system includes two electrodes submerged into each
chamber to gain electrical conduction.
{\label{417374}}%
}}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

PEM Construction: Designing an Electrolytic Passageway in the Microbial
Fuel Cell

The current protocol for PEM construction comprises of a mixture of
electrolytic polymers which facilitate the exchange of protons across a
semipermeable membrane. The nature of the PEM satisfies the electrical
exchange (Hydrogen proton transfer) between the Anode and Cathode
chambers. More specifically, the PEM harnesses and manipulates freely
moving protons (primarily in the Anode chamber) to output electrical
energy from the bridgeway of the two submerged electrodes in the Anode
and Cathode chambers. The electrolyte membrane gradient between the
Anodic and Cathodic chambers optimized efficiency and electrical
production by acting as a continuous bridgeway of Hydrogen Proton
exchange. The medium of the Proton Exchange Membrane is comprised of a
simplified Agar-based solution, including a mid-high concentration of
sodium. The reactants of the PEM were freely adjusted in association
with the experimental trials. In other words, based on the conditions of
Algal culture, PEM consistency and concentrations were regulated for
optimization. The following table describes the mixture of the PEM
medium mixture.

\par\null\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[h!]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/Untitled-drawing-(1)/Untitled-drawing-(1)}
\caption{{The compact Algal Microbial Fuel Cell is interlinked with a sandwiched
Proton Exchange Membrane which exchanges Hydrogen protons between the
Cathodic and Anodic chambers. The porosity of the PEM maximizes
electrical output.
{\label{272857}}%
}}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\textbf{Table 1.1} : Proton Exchange Membrane Mixture Protocol\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{longtable}[]{@{}ll@{}}
\toprule
Mixed and Boiled Substance: Sodium Chloride & 75 (g)
grams\tabularnewline
Mixed and Boiled Substance: Water (H2O) & 200 (mL)
milliliters\tabularnewline
Mixed and Boiled Substance: Agar Media & 5 (g) grams\tabularnewline
\bottomrule
\end{longtable}

\begin{quote}
The mixture was later cooled until stable room temperature. The
resulting mixture was then transferred into a petri dish. Finally, the
petri dish was allowed to freeze in 0 degrees Fahrenheit or -17.78
degrees Celsius.
\end{quote}

The architecture of the Proton Exchange Membrane was unconventional in
design, due to the technique of Hydrogen Proton Exchange. The substance
reaction enabled maximal transfer proton transfer due to the medium's
high porosity. In other words, semipermeability was distributed across
the membrane, rather than two singular location. Porosity was enabled
with the reactants of the Agar medium. The function of the PEM is
presented in the figure below:

\par\null

Organizing a Small Scale Unit of AlgaeBioreactors in Chlorella Vulgaris,
Spirulina, and Nannochloropsis

Bioreactor design was most efficiently achieved with the traditional
construction of the Microbial Fuel Cell system. A unified unit of
varying Algal species (for the analysis of electrical output). The
crucial components of a bioreactor are purposed to mimic the essential
environmental conditions in a culturable Algal environment. The most
significant Algae growth rate factors include nutrients and the
photosynthetic access. Achieving an optimal ratio of sun exposure (3:1)
(as identified in the parameters) in combination with nutrients levels
was crucial (a Miracle Grow growth media). Additionally, a source of
agitation was provided with a shaker platform as presented in the figure
below:

\par\null\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[h!]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/MFC3/MFC3}
\caption{{The diagram reveals an organized unit of Algal cultures in combination
with the Microbial Fuel Cell system. A shaker platform was provided for
continuous/systematic agitation. All parameters in each small-scale
photo-bioreactor was regulated
{\label{387703}}%
}}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\textbf{Algae Culturing Methods:}

Algae Culturing primarily consisted of the systematic maintenance of the
chambers and the bioreactor system (the entire MFC system with its
containment). Nearly 3.78 g/L of Miracle Gro (a generic nutrient media)
was mixtured into the bioreactor system- or 0.003 g/mL. The bioreactor
system primarily had two air pumps per microbial fuel cell system. This
system also included close contact fluorescent lights to further
maintain optimal growth conditions. Once the culture reduced towards 100
mL, it was replenished with 3.78 g/L of distilled water to replenish the
bioreactor. Constant agitation was balanced through a laboratory shaker
table at a setting of 2/10.

Essential Materials:

\begin{quote}
Spectrophotometer: This will measure the absorptive frequencies of
light, ensuring the growth rate of algae (this is a crucial part of the
experimental procedure).
\end{quote}

Electrical output (mW) will be assessed and recorded by using a
multimeter.

\begin{quote}
Potassium Hydroxide is used for lipid extraction, with nearly 1 ml of
potassium hydroxide.
\end{quote}

Quantification of Variables: Electrical Output, Lipid Yields, and Cell
Concentration

The variety of parameters and dependent variables obtained during
experimentation included the resulting oil production, electrical
output, and culture concentrations. Several instruments were utilized to
precisely analyze each variable in relation to algae development. Cell
concentration was primarily sampled to understand media and culture
densities. In other words, algal density and absorption rates were
recorded. A spectrophotometer was used to compare and acquire cell
concentration. Higher algal culture absorption rates in (A) defined as
highly dense cultures. Most importantly, electrical output was, simply,
analyzed through a multimeter in mW electrical-energy. The multimeter
was attached to a low-resistance copper wire which was coiled around a
graphite stick submerged into the cathodic and anodic chambers of the
MFC. Additionally, lipid yields were assessed to better understand the
capabilities of oil production (in mL).

Independent Variables Tested:

An Algae-based microbial fuel cell will be compared in different culture
species. More specifically, Nannochloropsis, Chlorella Vulgaris, and
Spirulina will be investigated as an alternative biological energy
source.

Controlled Variables: The results obtained will than be compared with a
generic bacterial-MFC system. The results, in terms of large scale
energy production, will be analyzed, in relation to traditional fossil
fuels and oil production.

Constant Parameters:

Throughout experimentation, parameters such as pH, salinity, lux levels
(light intensity), temperature, and cell concentration were maintained.
The containment was maintained by replenishing and releveling water
levels to maintain constant cell concentrations. In addition,
stabilizing pH, salinity, light intensity, and temperature was
significant to ensure genuine results.

\textbf{Preliminary Conjectures:}

The hypotheses of the experimental trials is most associated with the
scalability of Algae in combination with traditional MFC systems.
Furthermore, the project explores the effectiveness of Algal culture as
a sustainable substitute in small-large scale energy needs. The
magnitude of a photosynthetic MFC is investigated by considering the
potential electrical output and effectiveness of each Algal culture.
Additionally, assessing the current provided understanding of the
physical and biomolecular behaviors of each Algal genus is necessary
(Chlorella Vulgaris, Spirulina, and Nannochloropsis ) to hypothesize the
magnitude of energy efficiency. As noted in the literature review,
preliminary research indicates that Algal cultures cultivate at
significantly distinct rates, in terms of cell concentration and
reproductivity. Algae cultures, such as Spirulina, Chlorella Vulgaris,
and Nannochloropsis were the prime candidates for MFC experimentation
due to their notably high culture densities. Algal cells have high
frequencies of cellular respiration and photosynthesis that are critical
in MFC efficiency. The respiratory processes of an algae bioreactor
enable high density algal growth, which occurs exponentially. Although
an algae growth curve is S-selected, exponential growth occurred most
commonly when approaching the stationary phase. Since algae cultures
mimic similar exponential growth curves to that of aerobic and anaerobic
bacteria, the following conjectures were formulated:\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{longtable}[]{@{}ll@{}}
\toprule
Conjecture & Instrumentation and Testing\tabularnewline
The higher reproductive and culture concentration levels in
Nannochloropsis will results in increased electrical output. results are
expected due to optimal photosynthetic processes. Although
Nannochloropsis does not present optimal cell multiplication, cell
density increases drastically. & Culture electrical output will, simply,
be sampled with a multimeter for precise mW results. Electricity will be
transferred to a coiled electrode submerged into the cathodic and anodic
chambers.\tabularnewline
Spirulina will present higher electrical results due to culture
proliferation rates. & Culture electrical output will, simply, be
sampled with a multimeter for precise mW results. Electricity will be
transferred to a coiled electrode submerged into the cathodic and anodic
chambers.\tabularnewline
Chlorella Vulgaris will boast the highest electrical outputs due to high
algal cell reproduction rates. & Culture electrical output will, simply,
be sampled with a multimeter for precise mW results. Electricity will be
transferred to a coiled electrode submerged into the cathodic and anodic
chambers.\tabularnewline
Using an Algae bioreactor will maintain and regulate optimal conditions
for the given cultures by sustaining temperature, pH, salinity, light
intensity, etc. & pH levels, light intensity, and salinity will be
sampled throughout the algae cultures. In addition, this will be
compared to an unagitated non-bioreactor/microbial fuel
cell.\tabularnewline
An algae based microbial fuel cell will display higher electrical output
than a traditional MFC, due to high photosynthetic processes. &
Electrical output will be compared against preliminary anaerobic and
aerobic bacteria MFC systems to further understand the
energy-significance of algae cultures.\tabularnewline
\bottomrule
\end{longtable}

\textbf{Safety Risks and Factors of Experimentation:}

The most critical substance during the trials was Potassium Hydroxide
(KOH) which was used for oil flocculation/extraction. Precautions, such
as protective eyewear, gloves, and clothing were taken before this
procedure. There are, however, are non-harmful methods of oil extraction
such as compression. For the time being, Potassium Hydroxide was the
most reachable method. This project does contain any other risk factors
or safety concerns due to the materials included. The most concerning,
however, is the algal culture and media. The algal culture was
thoroughly maintained in a sterile environment and personal precautions
were also taken- sterile protective gloves, eyewear, and clothing. By
doing this we ensured personal safety and a controlled environment. The
consumption of material and substances throughout the experimentation
was prohibited.

\textbf{ASSESSMENT OF ALGAL CULTURE AND ELECTRICAL OUTPUT:}

After 50 mL of highly concentrated algae culture was obtained, it was
immediately transferred to a 500 mL nutrient rich bioreactor medium
composed of an initial 2 mg of All-Purpose growth media (1 mg/250ml).
Cell concentration, pH, aquatic temperature, salinity, sterilization,
and lux levels were assessed. Cell concentrations were obtained with a
spectrophotometer. After two days of cultivation, the algae was
transferred to a 450 mL MFC anode chamber. Electrical testing was
executed with a multimeter. After all conditions and parameters were
assessed in the anode and cathode chambers, cell concentration was
maintained at a stationary phase in each algal culture bioreactor.
Photosynthetic absorption levels served as the magnitude and benchmark
of electrical production. The indirect correlation between absorption
levels and electrical output were further investigated as a proportional
increase from the stationary phase. Due to the proliferative nature of
the stationary development, optimal electrical output (mW) were highly
expected. The following photometric absorbance rates presented the most
efficiency:\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{longtable}[]{@{}ll@{}}
\toprule
\textbf{Algae Species} & \textbf{Stationary Absorption
Level}\tabularnewline
Chlorella Vulgaris & 123 (A)\tabularnewline
Nannochloropsis & 286 (A)\tabularnewline
Spirulina & 142 (A)\tabularnewline
\bottomrule
\end{longtable}

Data Analysis: Algae Cultivation

Throughout the analysis of data, there was an increasingly positive
correlation between algae growth and electrical output until the
stationary phase. However, additional experimental trials indicate that
exceeding the stationary phase (death phase) will lower electrical
output. Initially, electrical output was meager, however, nearing the
stationary phase, mW increased drastically.\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[h!]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image5/image5}

\end{center}
\end{figure}\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[h!]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image6/image6}
\caption{{Physical data analysis of Algal development (in individual MFC systems)
presented positive correlations between both Milliwattage and
proliferation in the stationary phase. Due to high density cell
densities in both Chlorella Vulgaris and Nannochloropsis, heightened
metabolic rates were expected to satisfy the energy producing PEM.
Chlorella Vulgaris peaked absorption levels at 123 (A), whereas,
Nannochloropsis boasted a superior 286 (A).%
}}
\end{center}
\end{figure}\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[h!]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image7/image7}
\caption{{Spirulina development rates experienced less variation during the
stationary phase. Although the stationary phase presents the highest
source of physical density, Spirulina was nearly static and regulatory
from days 18-30. However, in cultures such as Chlorella Vulgaris and
Nannochloropsis, exponential growth was dispersed across the spectrum of
the stationary phase. However, as noted with the previous cultures,
proportional correlations were drawn between heightening electrical
levels (mW) and absorption (A). Spirulina peaked a magnitude of 142 (A)%
}}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\par\null

Electrical Outputs in Individual Cultures:\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[h!]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image8/image8}

\end{center}
\end{figure}\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[h!]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image9/image9}

\end{center}
\end{figure}\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[h!]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image10/image10}

\end{center}
\end{figure}\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[h!]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image11/image11}

\end{center}
\end{figure}\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[h!]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image12/image12}

\end{center}
\end{figure}

Peak Algal electrical outputs primarily occurred at the stationary
phases of Algae development. In addition, the peak stationary absorption
for Chlorella Vulgaris was 123 (A), Nannochloropsis 286 (A), and 142 (A)
for Spirulina. Nannochloropsis presented the highest electrical output
of 35 mW. Chlorella resulted in 30.2 mW, whereas Spirulina resulted in
31 mW. However, Spirulina experienced the most drastic increases in
electrical outputs when approaching the stationary

\textbf{SUPPLEMENTARY DATA:}

\par\null\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[h!]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image13/image13}
\caption{{Although not the purpose of experimentation, Lipid Yields in varying
algal cultures were assessed to acknowledge biofuel efficiency. The data
presented indicates that nearly 200 mL of purified-natural oils were
obtained from Chlorella Vulgaris, 100 mL in Spirulina, and 300 mL in a
Nannochloropsis containment. Thus, the algal culture was able to
simultaneously secrete oil yields while maintaining optimal electrical
levels.%
}}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

Conclusions and Discussion:

In this study, a novel algae-based photosynthetic MFC was evaluated in
terms of electrical output, conditions, and growth. Within the
electrical output, the nannochloropsis photometric absorption rate was
at 286 (A) and had the highest electrical output of 35 mW. Additionally,
the nannochloropsis was capable of proliferating during long periods of
times. However, Spirulina ( 31 mW) and Chlorella (30.2mW) absorption
rates proved to be less effective. It is likely that the diffusional
limitation in the species resulted in an inefficiency of the absorption
process. This preliminary study suggests that it is possible to utilize
an algae-based microbial fuel cell to create energy efficient production
through the photosynthetic nature of the fuel cell. Furthermore, the
cell would reduce excess carbon dioxide while simultaneously producing
energy. General Data Analysis: Electrical Output and Algae Development.
During the investigation of data, it is concluded that Nannochloropsis
is a likely candidate in bio-electric production. Most notably, there
was an obvious correlation between both Algae development (photometric
absorption) and electrical output mW. The positive relationship between
electrical output (mW) and the magnitude of absorption (A) strongly
suggests that higher algae concentrations were proportional with optimal
electrical output when approaching the stationary phase. Due to higher
metabolic processes in algal cultures, higher electrical results (mW)
were anticipated.

Future Directions and Prospects:

The practical use of an MFC in a large scale setting is to be further
investigated. An Algae MFC proves to be economically, environmentally,
and technologically efficient. The future of this study may be used in
multiple worldwide settings:

Developed Nations (e.g. United States and the European industry):
Large-scale energy production as a substitute for fossil fuels and oil
production. The MFC will immediately minimize greenhouse gases while
producing biofuel and electrical energy.

Developing Countries (e.g. countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin
America):

Potential Large scale electrical and biofuel production. May be used by
individuals, facilities, and companies.

Large oceanic cultures can be utilized for high-scale energy production.
More importantly, the scalability and size compatibility of a combined
photobioreactor and microbial fuel cell is to be further sample. In
addition, investigating the idea of small-scale interlinked Algal solar
cells with maximized adjustability is crucial. Constructing a more
adjustable unit of Microbial Fuel Cells may advantage easy scalability,
attachment, and configuration (e.g. reorganization and repair of energy
units after a storm or natural disaster).

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