1. Introduction
The sustainable governance of water resources relies greatly on an ongoing integration of information and knowledge from diverse disciplines and domains to reflect current understandings and needs (Edelenbos et al. 2011, Cox et al. 2016, Schlüter et al. 2017). These diverse knowledge sources and types are often dispersed among multiple agencies and stakeholder groups functioning at different levels and scales (Berkes 2009, Armitage et al. 2011, Edelenbos et al. 2011). To avoid knowledge gaps, sustainable water governance therefore calls for inter-agency collaboration, ongoing learning and capacity building, as well as the emergence of partnerships and collaborative networks between public, private and civil society stakeholders at different organizational levels (McDowell 2012, Peter et al. 2013, Medema et al. 2016). Ideally, these collaborative networks allow for a continuous co-creation of new knowledge, while facilitating changes of practice, institutional development, boundary crossing and reframing (Kaufman et al. 1999, Akkerman et al. 2011).
Although the concept carries a negative connotation, boundaries belong to all the domains or worlds that they are separating, which is why boundaries not only divide but also connect these different worlds and perspectives. Kaufman et al. (1999) define boundaries as socio-ecological and socio-cultural differences between diverse knowledge or professional domains and stakeholder groups leading to a discontinuity in action or interaction. The idea of ‘discontinuities’ is that these can trigger learning in the form of collaborative re-framing – basically knowledge co-creation through the (re)-creation of identities, and reshaping of relationships and practices. Boundary crossing in the learning sciences is referred to as the interactions and transitions between agencies and stakeholder groups across different domains and boundaries (Kaufman et al. 1999). For this study, the definition of boundary crossing processes is expanded to being a generative process that involves the effective integration of diverse knowledge types and domains while creating new knowledge through collaborative networks and processes.
Boundary crossing processes require boundary objects that involve either artefacts, people, or institutions (Medema et al. 2015, 2016). These boundary objects offer a means to align different perspectives and interests (Folke et al. 2005, Roux et al. 2006, Crona and Parker 2012). For these objects to be effective, it is crucial that they capture multiple meanings and perspectives while also functioning as a tool for ongoing communication and collaboration (Hunter 2008, Medema et al. 2016). Effective boundary crossing processes and objects may facilitate different learning mechanisms that are described by Akkerman et al. (2011) as follows: (a) identification – referring to individuals and groups learning about how the many different practices contained within a boundary relate to each other; (b) coordination – referring to learning about how to work with others at the boundary to develop more sustainable practices and routines; (c) reflection – referring to the expansion of perspectives on practices that takes place when working at boundaries; and (d) transformation – referring to the collaboration and co-development of (new) practices, routines and knowledge.
For this study, serious game simulations have been isolated as a potential boundary object to bring together diverse professional and knowledge groups and domains. Serious game simulations offer unique mechanisms for enhancing social learning and collaboration to overcome governance challenges (Mostert et al. 2008, Medema et al. 2014, 2015). These simulations are developed for purposes beyond entertainment and aim to address real world challenges (Sawyer 2007, Zhou 2014). Resource management games tend to be powered by scientific computer models that serve as interactive simulations allowing players, for example, to rapidly understand the cause and effect of different policies or development strategies (Van der Wal et al. 2015). It can be argued that serious game simulations hold advantages over more conventional collaborative methodologies and tools owing to their competitive and entertainment aspects, as well as their role play game characteristics and feedback mechanisms (Graafland et al. 2012, Medema et al. 2016).
The objective of this study is to determine whether serious game simulations present an effective boundary object to create a space in which interactions and knowledge co-creation can effectively occur. To achieve this objective, the following research questions have been identified:
* (i) Do serious game simulations facilitate increased interactions between participants?
* (ii) Do participants feel that their interactions and collaborations were meaningful?
* (iii) What impact do pre-existing relationships have on game simulation dynamics?
* (iv) Are relationships and connections between players strengthened over time?
This study involved six different game simulation events that have been organized including students, professionals and diverse stakeholder groups working in watershed management contexts. A total of XX individuals participated in these six in-person simulation gaming events. During these events, participants were placed in smaller groups and given the common goal of collaboratively managing water resources in the virtual Aqua Republica watershed. Collaborative experiences have been explored before and after each serious game simulation event through surveys that evaluate participants’ perceived collaboration (Frey et al. 2006), and by performing an interaction analysis (Jordan and Henderson 1995). Subsequently, a social network analysis was conducted to determine if connections between players have strengthened as a result. The following section provides more details on the Aqua Republica game simulation that has been used as a boundary object for this study.
2. Aqua Republica Game Simulation
Aqua Republica is technically a one-player game simulation that can be played in the form of a competition between teams of participants, while allowing to monitor and track interactions and learning progress, as well as engage participants’ interests and discussions (Chew et al. 2013). Aqua Republica uses technology to create a visually engaging web-based interface and game play environment, in addition to processing the calculations of the underlying physical and social models (ibid.). This game is designed by Cap-Net-UNDP and UNEP-DHI as a tool to provide opportunities for participants to try out diverse strategies for watershed management in a simplified version of the real world. Although the game simulation does not represent an existing watershed, the challenges of managing scarce water resources in a context of increasing demand from multiple users that are encountered in this simulation are very realistic. The game allows participants to act as watershed planners who must find ways to manage conflicts and trade-offs involved in watershed management. Players are given a birds-eye-view of the Aqua Republica watershed (see Figure 1). The map is bisected in the middle by a line representing an administrative barrier. Players only have the option of building below the line while the AI of the game decides the actions of the upstream neighbor. The map is divided into cells where; each cell can then be developed into either, industry, farmland or ecological services. Players are part of a planning committee in Aqua Republica and this committee is in charge of all the planning and development activities in the watershed while making sure that these developments are sustainable. The game simulation exists of four levels, with increasing difficulty. During the six organized game simulation events, players were asked to play the third level (‘sharing water across boundaries’), in order to get the maximum benefit from the game. Different events and disasters appear throughout the game simulation, either with positive or negative impacts, depending on previous actions taken by players and their teams.