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Kernel

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The kernel trick

The kernel trick avoids the explicit mapping that is needed to get linear learning algorithms to learn a nonlinear function or decision boundary.

Kernel function

Kernel functions provide a way to manipulate data as though it were projected into a higher dimensional space, by operating on it in its original space. So that data in higher-dimensional space become more easily separable. Kernel function is also used in integral equation for surface radiation exchanges. Kernel function relates to both the geometry of the enclosure and its surface properties. Kernel function depends on geometry of the body. 

Outlier

Outlier detection - http://sebastianraschka.com/Articles/2014_dixon_test.html

Mahalanobis distance