4. DISCUSSION
The overall individual prevalence and herd prevalence of GIP infection
reported among agro-pastoral cattle herds in this study were 58.6% and
92.3%, respectively. The high GIP infection is a reflection of the
extent of contamination of the grazing paddock or pasture with infective
stages of these parasites (Fikru et al., 2006). This could be as a
result of the traditional husbandry method used in rearing the cattle
(Adejinmi and Harrison, 1997). Reports from different parts of Nigeria
also showed the prevalence of GIP ranging from 34.9% to 82.24%
(Afolabi et al., 2007; Pam et al., 2013; Sylvia et al., 2015;
Okike-Osisiogu et al., 2016; Takeet et al., 2016; Abah and Ebong, 2017;
Adelakun and Akande, 2018). High prevalence rates of GIP have also been
reported from other countries including Colombian Northeastern Mountain
(50.5%) (Pinilla León et al., 2019), Pakistan (64.6%) (Rafiullah et
al., 2011) and Ghana (95.5%) (Squire et al., 2013). The prevalence
reported in this study is an indication that GIP infection remains a
threat to the livestock industry because of its ability to cause a
reduction in weight gain, high morbidity and mortality especially in
young animals (Diaz de Ramírez et al., 1998; Cordero and Rojas, 1999).
Notably, Eimeria spp was the only protozoan and most abundant GIP
identified in this study. Contamination of water and pasture by
excretion and secretion from infected cattle as well as poor pasture
management (Tamasaukas et al., 2010) are factors that could contribute
to the high prevalence. The parasitic abundance of Eimeria spp
corroborates earlier finding from the study location where a prevalence
of 40.1% was reported (Adelakun and Akande, 2018). In contrast, Karaye
et al. (2018) reported a much lower prevalence of Eimeria spp in
Plateau State. This study also negates previous reports by Raza et al.
(2014) and Swarnakar et al. (2015) that coccidian oocysts were the least
GIP observed. The variation in prevalence could be due to immunological
status and management condition. Eimeria spp are known to cause
coccidiosis primarily in calves and accompanying signs are diarrhoea,
dehydration, weight loss, depression, loss of appetite and occasionally,
death may also be observed in infected animals (Squire, 2013).
The nematodes recorded the highest prevalence of GI helminths, which
agrees with other previous studies (Tshering and Dorji 2013; Adelakun
and Akande, 2018). Death of livestock is common in the tropics where
marginal levels of nutrition exacerbate the detrimental effects of
infection (Ademola and Eloff, 2010). Most prevalent nematode identified
in this study was Neoascaris vitulorum ; previous study by Raza et
al. (2007) in Pakistan has also shown N. vitulorum to be the most
frequently occurring nematode in cattle. The prevalence obtained in this
study is similar to the 10.2% reported in Oyo State by Oluwole et al.
(2016). Neoascaris vitulorum is a parasite of the small intestine
of ruminants (Roberts, 1990). It is responsible for high morbidity and
mortality rates in ruminants (Das and Singh, 1955; Patnaik and Pande,
1963) resulting in serious economic losses (Enyenihi, 1969).
Other nematodes identified include Strongyles spp,Nematodirus spp and Strongyloides spp. Schistosomaspp and Paramphistomum spp belong to the trematoda class and are
both helminths of veterinary importance. They are responsible for
schistosomosis and paramphistomosis, respectively. Schistosomaspp however, is of public health importance as the report of hybrid ofS. bovis and S. haematobium (Webster et al., 2013) are
been reported in Africa. The prevalence observed could be as a result of
the rainy season during which the study was carried out. This could have
aided the viability of eggs, growth and development of both the
infective stages of the parasites and the intermediate host, all of
which are necessary for the successful completion of the parasite’s
indirect life cycle (Colina et al., 2013).
Taenid spp and Monienza spp were the only two identified
cestode species. The Taenid spp have zoonotic implication. Cattle
are the known intermediate hosts while humans are the definitive hosts.
However, in this study, we found eggs typical of Taenia, which suggests
the need for further studies; particularly molecular characterization
towards deciphering the true picture of things. Monienza spp is
responsible for monieziasis which is often present in ruminants that
graze on infected pastures and the infection is maintained by the
availability of Oribatid mites (intermediate hosts) that are required
for the completion of the lifecycle of Moniezia spp (Quiroz et
al., 2011).
Generally, susceptibility to GIP infection might be influenced by
varying factors such as age, breed, health status, pregnancy and history
of early infection (Pfukenyi and Mukaratirwa, 2013). However, in this
study, age, BCS, breed and herd size were the factors significantly
associated with the prevalence of GIP. A relatively high GIP infection
was observed in cattle <2years of age compared to the young
and adult cattle. This age prevalence of GIP is similar to the findings
of Tilak et al. (2016). The higher GIP infection in cattle less than 2
years could be because the older cattle, greater than 2years, are more
resistant to GIP, while the cattle <2years are more
susceptible to infection (Pfukenyi et al., 2007), being new and just
coming to the pasture. Cattle with lean BCS had the highest GIP
infection, a likely impact of GI parasites on the body mass of severely
affected cattle. Insufficient fat reserves, poor health and nutritional
factors are primary reasons why poorly conditioned animals are weak at
mounting protective immunity against worm infestation (Tasawar et
al., 2011). The White Fulani breed of cattle had the highest GIP
infection, an outcome that corroborates previous studies in Adamawa
State (Aliyara et al., 2012; Qadeer et al., 2015). This may simply be
because it was the predominant breed sampled. Finally, cattle from herd
size that were grouped into 1-30 had GIP prevalence higher than other
groups of 31–50 cattle and the greater than 50. The association of herd
size to GIP prevalence might be as a result of the immunological status
of the animals, difference in the grazing area and management conditions
(Regassa et al., 2006).