Figure Legends
Figure 1. Map of the study areas and infection prevalence from
2005-2016. (A) Map of East Sepik and Madang study area villages and
locations on the north coast of Papua New Guinea (inset) The graphs show
the pre-LLIN (2005/6) and post-LLIN (2010-2014) molecular prevalence for
(B) East Sepik and (C) Madang for both P. falciparum (light grey)
and P. vivax (dark grey) and proportion of multiclonal infections
(black line) (Arnott et al., 2013; Barry et al., 2013; Kattenberg et
al., 2020; Koepfli et al., 2017; Koepfli et al., 2015; Mueller et al.,
2009; Senn et al., 2012).
Figure 2. Changing diversity of P. falciparum andP. vivax populations over an intensifying period of malaria
control (2005-2014). Allelic Richness (Rs ) in P.
falciparum (A) (n= 860) and P. vivax (B) (n=755) populations
pre- (≤2006) and post-LLIN (≥2010) mass-distributions. Error bars
indicate standard deviations.
Figure 3. Genetic differentiation estimates among P.
falciparum and P. vivax populations pre- and post-LLIN
mass-distributions. Pairwise Jost’s D values for (A) P.
falciparum and (B) P. vivax. Pairwise Jost’s D values and 95%
confidence intervals were estimated with 1000 bootstraps using the
diveRsity package in R. Pairwise FST values (Weir and
Cockerham) are shown in figure S1.
Figure 4. Bayesian cluster analysis of P. falciparum (A)
and P. vivax (B) of pre- (2005/6) and post-LLIN studies
(2010-2014). Individual samples are sorted by province and year (solid
lines), catchment area (dashed line) and cluster membership (colour).
Madang catchments are organised as Malala, Mugil, Utu and ESP2 and
2012-13 as Brukham, Burui, Ilahita, Ulupu, and Wombisa (no infections in
2012). As identified in the genetic differentiation analysis (Jost’s D,
Figure 3), there was moderate differentiation for P. falciparumbetween the ESP1 (Wosera area) 2005 and Madang 2006 versus the other
studies (only one province included pre-LLIN), which is believed to be
for a large part caused by experimental- and data analysis differences.
Therefore, these P. falciparum studies were grouped separately
for the population structure analysis, in order to avoid artificial
changes in ancestry over time.
Figure 5. Unrooted neighbour-joining tree of P. vivax isolates in
East Sepik province in 2012-13. Relatedness among haplotypes was defined
by calculating the pairwise distance and neighbour-joining tree using
the APE package in R and the tree was visualized using Phylocanvas
through microreact.org (Argimon et al., 2016; ”Microreact,”). Colours
and shapes indicate the village where the isolates were collected. Very
closely related isolates are observed in the village of Sunuhu (dark
grey circles).