References:
1. Mion G. History of anaesthesia: The ketamine story - past, present
and future. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2017; 34(9):571–5.
2. Johnstone M, Evans V, Baigel S. Sernyl (CI-395) in clinical
anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth. 1959 Oct; 31:433–9.
3. Domino EF, Chodoff P, Corssen G. PHARMACOLOGIC EFFECTS OF CI-581, A
NEW DISSOCIATIVE ANESTHETIC, IN MAN. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1965 Jun;
6:279–91.
4. Anis NA, Berry SC, Burton NR, Lodge D. The dissociative anaesthetics,
ketamine and phencyclidine, selectively reduce excitation of central
mammalian neurones by N-methyl-aspartate. Br J Pharmacol. 1983
Jun;79(2):565–75.
5. Mion G, Villevieille T. Ketamine pharmacology: an update
(pharmacodynamics and molecular aspects, recent findings). CNS Neurosci
Ther. 2013 Jun; 19(6):370–80.
6. Duncan GE, Miyamoto S, Leipzig JN, Lieberman JA. Comparison of brain
metabolic activity patterns induced by ketamine, MK-801 and amphetamine
in rats: support for NMDA receptor involvement in responses to
subanesthetic dose of ketamine. Brain Res. 1999 Oct 2;
843(1–2):171–83.
7. Sprenger T, Valet M, Woltmann R, Zimmer C, Freynhagen R, Kochs EF, et
al. Imaging pain modulation by subanesthetic S-(+)-ketamine. Anesth
Analg. 2006 Sep;103(3):729–37.
8. Orser BA, Pennefather PS, MacDonald JF. Multiple mechanisms of
ketamine blockade of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors. Anesthesiology.
1997 Apr; 86(4):903–17.
9. Sleigh J, Harvey M, Voss L, Denny B. Ketamine – More mechanisms of
action than just NMDA blockade. Trends in Anaesthesia and Critical Care.
2014 Jun 1;4(2):76–81.
10. Yang Y, Maher DP, Cohen SP. Emerging concepts on the use of ketamine
for chronic pain. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2020 Feb;13(2):135–46.
11. Kapur S, Seeman P. NMDA receptor antagonists ketamine and PCP have
direct effects on the dopamine D(2) and serotonin
5-HT(2)receptors-implications for models of schizophrenia. Mol
Psychiatry. 2002; 7(8):837–44.
12. Chen X, Shu S, Bayliss DA. HCN1 channel subunits are a molecular
substrate for hypnotic actions of ketamine. J Neurosci. 2009 Jan 21;
29(3):600–9.
13. Schnoebel R, Wolff M, Peters SC, Bräu ME, Scholz A, Hempelmann G, et
al. Ketamine impairs excitability in superficial dorsal horn neurones by
blocking sodium and voltage-gated potassium currents. Br J Pharmacol.
2005 Nov; 146(6):826–33.
14. Kinoshita H, Nishitani N, Nagai Y, Andoh C, Asaoka N, Kawai H, et
al. Ketamine-Induced Prefrontal Serotonin Release Is Mediated by
Cholinergic Neurons in the Pedunculopontine Tegmental Nucleus. Int J
Neuropsychopharmacol. 2018 01; 21(3):305–10.
15. Larsen B, Hoff G, Wilhelm W, Buchinger H, Wanner GA, Bauer M. Effect
of intravenous anesthetics on spontaneous and endotoxin-stimulated
cytokine response in cultured human whole blood. Anesthesiology. 1998
Nov; 89(5):1218–27.
16. Beilin B, Rusabrov Y, Shapira Y, Roytblat L, Greemberg L, Yardeni
IZ, et al. Low-dose ketamine affects immune responses in humans during
the early postoperative period. Br J Anaesth. 2007 Oct; 99(4):522–7.
17. Kawasaki C, Kawasaki T, Ogata M, Nandate K, Shigematsu A. Ketamine
isomers suppress superantigen-induced proinflammatory cytokine
production in human whole blood. Can J Anaesth. 2001 Sep; 48(8):819–23.
18. Yang J, Li W, Duan M, Zhou Z, Lin N, Wang Z, et al. Large dose
ketamine inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury in rats.
Inflamm Res. 2005 Mar; 54(3):133–7.
19. Li CY, Chou TC, Wong CS, Ho ST, Wu CC, Yen MH, et al. Ketamine
inhibits nitric oxide synthase in lipopolysaccharide-treated rat
alveolar macrophages. Can J Anaesth. 1997 Sep; 44(9):989–95.
20. Dahmani S, Michelet D, Abback P-S, Wood C, Brasher C, Nivoche Y, et
al. Ketamine for perioperative pain management in children: a
meta-analysis of published studies. Paediatr Anaesth. 2011 Jun;
21(6):636–52.
21. Engelhard K, Werner C, Eberspächer E, Bachl M, Blobner M, Hildt E,
et al. The effect of the alpha 2-agonist dexmedetomidine and the
N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist S (+)-ketamine on the expression of
apoptosis-regulating proteins after incomplete cerebral ischemia and
reperfusion in rats. Anesth Analg. 2003 Feb; 96(2):524–31, table of
contents.
22. Proescholdt M, Heimann A, Kempski O. Neuroprotection of S(+)
ketamine isomer in global forebrain ischemia. Brain Res. 2001 Jun 22;
904(2):245–51.
23. Carlton SM. Peripheral NMDA receptors revisited - Hope floats. Pain.
2009 Nov; 146(1–2):1–2.
24. Haeseler G, Tetzlaff D, Bufler J, Dengler R, Münte S, Hecker H, et
al. Blockade of voltage-operated neuronal and skeletal muscle sodium
channels by S(+)- and R(-)-ketamine. Anesth Analg. 2003 Apr;
96(4):1019–26, table of contents.
25. Wagner LE, Gingrich KJ, Kulli JC, Yang J. Ketamine blockade of
voltage-gated sodium channels: evidence for a shared receptor site with
local anesthetics. Anesthesiology. 2001 Dec; 95(6):1406–13.
26. Canbay O, Celebi N, Uzun S, Sahin A, Celiker V, Aypar U. Topical
ketamine and morphine for post-tonsillectomy pain. Eur J Anaesthesiol.
2008 Apr; 25(4):287–92.
27. Portmann S, Kwan HY, Theurillat R, Schmitz A, Mevissen M, Thormann
W. Enantioselective capillary electrophoresis for identification and
characterization of human cytochrome P450 enzymes which metabolize
ketamine and norketamine in vitro. J Chromatogr A. 2010 Dec
17;1217(51):7942–8.
28. Rao LK, Flaker AM, Friedel CC, Kharasch ED. Role of Cytochrome
P4502B6 Polymorphisms in Ketamine Metabolism and Clearance.
Anesthesiology. 2016;125(6):1103–12.
29. Clements JA, Nimmo WS, Grant IS. Bioavailability, pharmacokinetics,
and analgesic activity of ketamine in humans. J Pharm Sci. 1982 May;
71(5):539–42.
30. Domino EF. Taming the ketamine tiger. 1965. Anesthesiology. 2010
Sep; 113(3):678–84.
31. Haas DA, Harper DG. Ketamine: a review of its pharmacologic
properties and use in ambulatory anesthesia. Anesth Prog. 1992;
39(3):61–8.
32. Pees C, Haas NA, Ewert P, Berger F, Lange PE. Comparison of
analgesic/sedative effect of racemic ketamine and S (+)-ketamine during
cardiac catheterization in newborns and children. Pediatr Cardiol. 2003
Oct; 24(5):424–9.
33. Hagelberg NM, Peltoniemi MA, Saari TI, Kurkinen KJ, Laine K,
Neuvonen PJ, et al. Clarithromycin, a potent inhibitor of CYP3A, greatly
increases exposure to oral S-ketamine. Eur J Pain. 2010 Jul;
14(6):625–9.
34. Eide K, Stubhaug A, Oye I, Breivik H. Continuous subcutaneous
administration of the N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor
antagonist ketamine in the treatment of post-herpetic neuralgia. Pain.
1995 May; 61(2):221–8.
35. Kuriyama A, Nakanishi M, Kamei J, Sun R, Ninomiya K, Hino M. Topical
application of ketamine to prevent postoperative sore throat in adults:
A systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2020;
64(5):579–91.
36. Kronenberg RH. Ketamine as an analgesic: parenteral, oral, rectal,
subcutaneous, transdermal and intranasal administration. J Pain Palliat
Care Pharmacother. 2002; 16(3):27–35.
37. Malinovsky JM, Servin F, Cozian A, Lepage JY, Pinaud M. Ketamine and
norketamine plasma concentrations after i.v., nasal and rectal
administration in children. Br J Anaesth. 1996 Aug; 77(2):203–7.
38. Azevedo VM, Lauretti GR, Pereira NL, Reis MP. Transdermal ketamine
as an adjuvant for postoperative analgesia after abdominal gynecological
surgery using lidocaine epidural blockade. Anesth Analg. 2000 Dec;
91(6):1479–82.
39. Yanagihara Y, Ohtani M, Kariya S, Uchino K, Hiraishi T, Ashizawa N,
et al. Plasma concentration profiles of ketamine and norketamine after
administration of various ketamine preparations to healthy Japanese
volunteers. Biopharm Drug Dispos. 2003 Jan; 24(1):37–43.
40. Zanos P, Moaddel R, Morris PJ, Riggs LM, Highland JN, Georgiou P, et
al. Ketamine and Ketamine Metabolite Pharmacology: Insights into
Therapeutic Mechanisms. Pharmacol Rev. 2018; 70(3):621–60.
41. Hornik CP, Gonzalez D, van den Anker J, Atz AM, Yogev R, Poindexter
BB, et al. Population Pharmacokinetics of Intramuscular and Intravenous
Ketamine in Children. J Clin Pharmacol. 2018 Apr 20;
42. Rolan P, Lim S, Sunderland V, Liu Y, Molnar V. The absolute
bioavailability of racemic ketamine from a novel sublingual formulation.
Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2014 Jun; 77(6):1011–6.
43. Bonanno FG. Ketamine in war/tropical surgery (a final tribute to the
racemic mixture). Injury. 2002 May; 33(4):323–7.
44. Hudetz JA, Patterson KM, Iqbal Z, Gandhi SD, Byrne AJ, Hudetz AG, et
al. Ketamine attenuates delirium after cardiac surgery with
cardiopulmonary bypass. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2009 Oct;
23(5):651–7.
45. Niesters M, Martini C, Dahan A. Ketamine for chronic pain: risks and
benefits. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2014 Feb;77(2):357–67.
46. Marchetti F, Coutaux A, Bellanger A, Magneux C, Bourgeois P, Mion G.
Efficacy and safety of oral ketamine for the relief of intractable
chronic pain: A retrospective 5-year study of 51 patients. Eur J Pain.
2015 Aug; 19(7):984–93.
47. Webster LR, Walker MJ. Safety and efficacy of prolonged outpatient
ketamine infusions for neuropathic pain. Am J Ther. 2006 Aug;
13(4):300–5.
48. Kamp J, Van Velzen M, Olofsen E, Boon M, Dahan A, Niesters M.
Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic considerations for NMDA-receptor
antagonist ketamine in the treatment of chronic neuropathic pain: an
update of the most recent literature. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol.
2019 Dec; 15(12):1033–41.
49. Sheehy KA, Muller EA, Lippold C, Nouraie M, Finkel JC, Quezado ZMN.
Subanesthetic ketamine infusions for the treatment of children and
adolescents with chronic pain: a longitudinal study. BMC Pediatr. 2015
Dec 1; 15:198.
50. Frey TM, Florin TA, Caruso M, Zhang N, Zhang Y, Mittiga MR. Effect
of Intranasal Ketamine vs Fentanyl on Pain Reduction for Extremity
Injuries in Children: The PRIME Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Pediatr.
2019 01; 173(2):140–6.
51. Lubega FA, DeSilva MS, Munube D, Nkwine R, Tumukunde J, Agaba PK, et
al. Low dose ketamine versus morphine for acute severe vaso occlusive
pain in children: a randomized controlled trial. Scand J Pain. 2018 26;
18(1):19–27.
52. Wong JJM, Lee JH, Turner DA, Rehder KJ. A review of the use of
adjunctive therapies in severe acute asthma exacerbation in critically
ill children. Expert Rev Respir Med. 2014 Aug;8(4):423–41.
53. Hendaus MA, Jomha FA, Alhammadi AH. Is ketamine a lifesaving agent
in childhood acute severe asthma? Ther Clin Risk Manag. 2016; 12:
273–9.
54. Jat KR, Chawla D. Ketamine for management of acute exacerbations of
asthma in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Nov 14;
11:CD009293.
55. Fujikawa DG. Starting ketamine for neuroprotection earlier than its
current use as an anesthetic/antiepileptic drug late in refractory
status epilepticus. Epilepsia. 2019;60 (3):373–80.
56. Kim S, Rush BS, Rice TR. A systematic review of therapeutic ketamine
use in children and adolescents with treatment-resistant mood disorders.
Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2020 May 8;
57. Afridi SK, Giffin NJ, Kaube H, Goadsby PJ. A randomized controlled
trial of intranasal ketamine in migraine with prolonged aura. Neurology.
2013 Feb 12; 80(7):642–7.
58. Anghelescu DL, Tesney JM. Neuropathic Pain in Pediatric Oncology: A
Clinical Decision Algorithm. Paediatr Drugs. 2019 Apr; 21(2):59–70.
59. Taylor M, Jakacki R, May C, Howrie D, Maurer S. Ketamine PCA for
treatment of end-of-life neuropathic pain in pediatrics. Am J Hosp
Palliat Care. 2015 Dec; 32(8):841–8.
60. Courade M, Bertrand A, Guerrini-Rousseau L, Pagnier A, Levy D,
Lervat C, et al. Low-dose ketamine adjuvant treatment for refractory
pain in children, adolescents and young adults with cancer: a pilot
study. BMJ Support Palliat Care. 2019 May 31;
61. Conway M, White N, Jean CS, Zempsky WT, Steven K. Use of continuous
intravenous ketamine for end-stage cancer pain in children. J Pediatr
Oncol Nurs. 2009 Apr; 26(2):100–6.
62. Finkel JC, Pestieau SR, Quezado ZMN. Ketamine as an adjuvant for
treatment of cancer pain in children and adolescents. J Pain. 2007 Jun;
8(6):515–21.
63. Visser E, Schug SA. The role of ketamine in pain management. Biomed
Pharmacother. 2006 Aug; 60(7):341–8.
64. Ramasubbu C, Gupta A. Pharmacological treatment of opioid-induced
hyperalgesia: a review of the evidence. J Pain Palliat Care
Pharmacother. 2011; 25(3):219–30.
65. Michelet D, Hilly J, Skhiri A, Abdat R, Diallo T, Brasher C, et al.
Opioid-Sparing Effect of Ketamine in Children: A Meta-Analysis and Trial
Sequential Analysis of Published Studies. Paediatr Drugs. 2016 Dec;
18(6):421–33.
66. Lauretti GR, Gomes JM, Reis MP, Pereira NL. Low doses of epidural
ketamine or neostigmine, but not midazolam, improve morphine analgesia
in epidural terminal cancer pain therapy. J Clin Anesth. 1999 Dec;
11(8):663–8.
67. Bredlau A-L, McDermott MP, Adams HR, Dworkin RH, Venuto C, Fisher
SG, et al. Oral ketamine for children with chronic pain: a pilot phase 1
study. J Pediatr. 2013 Jul; 163(1):194-200.e1.
68. World Health Organization. Persisting pain in children package: WHO
guidelines on the pharmacological treatment of persisting pain in
children with medical illnesses [Internet]. World Health
Organization; 2012 [cited 2020 Apr 20]. Available from:
https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/44540
69. World Health Organization. WHO guidelines for the pharmacological
and radiotherapeutic management of cancer pain in adults and
adolescents. [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2020 Jul 27]. Available
from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537492/
70. Klepstad P, Borchgrevink P, Hval B, Flaat S, Kaasa S. Long-term
treatment with ketamine in a 12-year-old girl with severe neuropathic
pain caused by a cervical spinal tumor. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2001
Dec; 23(9):616–9.
71. Tsui BCH, Davies D, Desai S, Malherbe S. Intravenous ketamine
infusion as an adjuvant to morphine in a 2-year-old with severe cancer
pain from metastatic neuroblastoma. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2004 Oct;
26(10):678–80.
72. Ugur F, Gulcu N, Boyaci A. Oral ketamine for pain relief in a child
with abdominal malignancy. Pain Med. 2009 Jan; 10(1):120–1.
73. Sheehy KA, Lippold C, Rice AL, Nobrega R, Finkel JC, Quezado ZM.
Subanesthetic ketamine for pain management in hospitalized children,
adolescents, and young adults: a single-center cohort study. J Pain Res.
2017; 10: 787–95.
74. Evans D, Turnham L, Barbour K, Kobe J, Wilson L, Vandebeek C, et al.
Intravenous ketamine sedation for painful oncology procedures. Paediatr
Anaesth. 2005 Feb; 15(2):131–8.
75. Melendez E, Bachur R. Serious adverse events during procedural
sedation with ketamine. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2009 May; 25(5):325–8.
76. Borker A, Ambulkar I, Gopal R, Advani SH. Safe and efficacious use
of procedural sedation and analgesia by non-anesthesiologists in a
pediatric hematology-oncology unit. Indian Pediatr. 2006 Apr;
43(4):309–14.
77. Chiaretti A, Ruggiero A, Barbi E, Pierri F, Maurizi P, Fantacci C,
et al. Comparison of propofol versus propofol-ketamine combination in
pediatric oncologic procedures performed by non-anesthesiologists.
Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2011 Dec 15; 57(7):1163–7.
78. McVey JD, Tobias JD. Dexmedetomidine and ketamine for sedation
during spinal anesthesia in children. J Clin Anesth. 2010 Nov;
22(7):538–45.
79. Chayapathi V, Kalra M, Bakshi AS, Mahajan A. A comparison of
ketamine + midazolam to propofol for procedural sedation for lumbar
puncture in pediatric oncology by nonanesthesiologists-a randomized
comparative trial. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2018; 65(8):e27108.
80. Pellier I, Monrigal JP, Le Moine P, Rod B, Rialland X, Granry JC.
Use of intravenous ketamine-midazolam association for pain procedures in
children with cancer. A prospective study. Paediatr Anaesth. 1999;
9(1):61–8.
81. Shi J, Li A, Wei Z, Liu Y, Xing C, Shi H, et al. Ketamine versus
ketamine pluses atropine for pediatric sedation: A meta-analysis. Am J
Emerg Med. 2018 Jul; 36(7):1280–6.
82. Bhatnagar S, Mishra S, Gupta M, Srikanti M, Mondol A, Diwedi A.
Efficacy and safety of a mixture of ketamine, midazolam and atropine for
procedural sedation in paediatric oncology: a randomised study of oral
versus intramuscular route. J Paediatr Child Health. 2008 Apr;
44(4):201–4.
83. Rayala S, Kyander M, Haridass V, Palat G, Ström A, Wiebe T, et al.
Low-dose Oral Ketamine as a Procedural Analgesia in Pediatric Cancer
Patients Undergoing Bone Marrow Aspirations at a Resource-limited Cancer
Hospital in India. Indian J Palliat Care. 2019 Dec; 25(4):501–7.
84. Shewale S, Saxena A, Trikha A, Singh M, Sharief A. Oral ketamine for
radiotherapy in children with cancer. Indian J Pediatr. 2000 Apr;
67(4):263–6.
85. Yang F, Liu Y, Yu Q, Li S, Zhang J, Sun M, et al. Analysis of 17 948
pediatric patients undergoing procedural sedation with a combination of
intranasal dexmedetomidine and ketamine. Paediatr Anaesth. 2019;
29(1):85–91.
86. Marx CM, Stein J, Tyler MK, Nieder ML, Shurin SB, Blumer JL.
Ketamine-midazolam versus meperidine-midazolam for painful procedures in
pediatric oncology patients. J Clin Oncol. 1997 Jan; 15(1):94–102.
87. Heinz P, Geelhoed GC, Wee C, Pascoe EM. Is atropine needed with
ketamine sedation? A prospective, randomised, double blind study. Emerg
Med J. 2006 Mar; 23(3):206–9.
88. Monsereenusorn C, Rujkijyanont P, Traivaree C. The clinical effect
of fentanyl in comparison with ketamine in analgesic effect for oncology
procedures in children: a randomized, double-blinded, crossover trial. J
Med Assoc Thai. 2015 Apr; 98(4):358–64.
89. Abdolkarimi B, Zareifar S, Golestani Eraghi M, Saleh F. Comparison
Effect of Intravenous Ketamine with Pethidine for Analgesia and Sedation
during Bone Marrow Procedures in Oncologic Children: A Randomized,
Double-Blinded, Crossover Trial. Int J Hematol Oncol Stem Cell Res. 2016
Oct 1; 10(4):206–11.
90. Rayala S, Bäckdahl T, Reddy N, Jacob J, Gebre-Medhin E, Karonen E,
et al. Low-Dose Oral Ketamine for Procedural Analgesia in Pediatric
Cancer Patients Undergoing Lumbar Puncture at a Resource-Limited Cancer
Hospital in India. J Palliat Med. 2019; 22(11):1357–63.
91. Winegarden JA, Carr DB, Bradshaw YS. Topical Ketamine with Other
Adjuvants: Underutilized for Refractory Cancer Pain? A Case Series and
Suggested Revision of the World Health Organization Stepladder for
Cancer Pain. J Palliat Med. 2020 Mar 11;
92. Hou S, Huh B, Kim HK, Kim K-H, Abdi S. Treatment of
Chemotherapy-Induced Peripheral Neuropathy: Systematic Review and
Recommendations. Pain Physician. 2018; 21(6):571–92.
93. Gewandter JS, Mohile SG, Heckler CE, Ryan JL, Kirshner JJ, Flynn PJ,
et al. A phase III randomized, placebo-controlled study of topical
amitriptyline and ketamine for chemotherapy-induced peripheral
neuropathy (CIPN): a University of Rochester CCOP study of 462 cancer
survivors. Support Care Cancer. 2014 Jul; 22(7):1807–14.
94. Tekelioglu UY, Apuhan T, Akkaya A, Demirhan A, Yildiz I, Simsek T,
et al. Comparison of topical tramadol and ketamine in pain treatment
after tonsillectomy. Paediatr Anaesth. 2013 Jun; 23(6):496–501.
95. Finch PM, Knudsen L, Drummond PD. Reduction of allodynia in patients
with complex regional pain syndrome: A double-blind placebo-controlled
trial of topical ketamine. Pain. 2009 Nov; 146(1–2):18–25.
96. Slatkin NE, Rhiner M. Topical ketamine in the treatment of mucositis
pain. Pain Med. 2003 Sep; 4(3):298–303.
97. Ryan AJ, Lin F, Atayee RS. Ketamine mouthwash for mucositis pain. J
Palliat Med. 2009 Nov; 12(11):989–91.
98. Shillingburg A, Kanate AS, Hamadani M, Wen S, Craig M, Cumpston A.
Treatment of severe mucositis pain with oral ketamine mouthwash. Support
Care Cancer. 2017; 25(7):2215–9.
99. Prakash S, Meena JP, Gupta AK, Bakhshi S, Velpandian T, Pandey RM,
et al. Ketamine mouthwash versus placebo in the treatment of severe oral
mucositis pain in children with cancer: A randomized double-blind
placebo-controlled trial. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2020 Jul 10;e28573.
100. Keppel Hesselink JM, Kopsky DJ, Stahl SM. Bottlenecks in the
development of topical analgesics: molecule, formulation, dose-finding,
and phase III design. J Pain Res. 2017; 10:635–41.
101. Green SM, Roback MG, Kennedy RM, Krauss B. Clinical Practice
Guideline for Emergency Department Ketamine Dissociative Sedation: 2011
Update. Annals of Emergency Medicine. 2011 May; 57(5):449–61.
102. Bredlau AL, Thakur R, Korones DN, Dworkin RH. Ketamine for pain in
adults and children with cancer: a systematic review and synthesis of
the literature. Pain Med. 2013 Oct; 14(10):1505–17.
103. Hatab SZ, Singh A, Felner EI, Kamat P. Transient central diabetes
insipidus induced by ketamine infusion. Ann Pharmacother. 2014 Dec;
48(12):1642–5.
104. Shahani R, Streutker C, Dickson B, Stewart RJ. Ketamine-associated
ulcerative cystitis: a new clinical entity. Urology. 2007 May;
69(5):810–2.
105. Chen W-Y, Huang M-C, Lin S-K. Gender differences in subjective
discontinuation symptoms associated with ketamine use. Subst Abuse Treat
Prev Policy. 2014 Sep 22; 9:39.
106. Johnson PN, Miller JL, Hagemann TM. Sedation and analgesia in
critically ill children. AACN Adv Crit Care. 2012 Dec; 23(4):415–34;
quiz 435–6.
107. Youssef-Ahmed MZ, Silver P, Nimkoff L, Sagy M. Continuous infusion
of ketamine in mechanically ventilated children with refractory
bronchospasm. Intensive Care Med. 1996 Sep;22(9):972–6.
108. Golding CL, Miller JL, Gessouroun MR, Johnson PN. Ketamine
Continuous Infusions in Critically Ill Infants and Children. Ann
Pharmacother. 2016 Mar; 50(3):234–41.
109. Ketamine. In: Drugs and Lactation Database (LactMed)
[Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Library of Medicine (US); 2006
[cited 2020 Jul 23]. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK500566/
110. Evans J, Rosen M, Weeks RD, Wise C. Ketamine in neurosurgical
procedures. Lancet. 1971 Jan 2; 1(7688):40–1.
111. Kaul HL, Jayalaxmi T, Gode GR, Mitra DK. Effect of ketamine on
intracranial pressure in hydrocephalic children. Anaesthesia. 1976 Jun;
31(5):698–701.
112. Zeiler FA, Teitelbaum J, West M, Gillman LM. The ketamine effect on
ICP in traumatic brain injury. Neurocrit Care. 2014 Aug; 21(1):163–73.
113. Himmelseher S, Durieux ME. Revising a dogma: ketamine for patients
with neurological injury? Anesth Analg. 2005 Aug; 101(2):524–34, table
of contents.
114. Bar-Joseph G, Guilburd Y, Tamir A, Guilburd JN. Effectiveness of
ketamine in decreasing intracranial pressure in children with
intracranial hypertension. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2009 Jul; 4(1):40–6.
115. Narendran R, Frankle WG, Keefe R, Gil R, Martinez D, Slifstein M,
et al. Altered prefrontal dopaminergic function in chronic recreational
ketamine users. Am J Psychiatry. 2005 Dec; 162(12):2352–9.
116. Malhotra AK, Pinals DA, Weingartner H, Sirocco K, Missar CD, Pickar
D, et al. NMDA receptor function and human cognition: the effects of
ketamine in healthy volunteers. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1996 May;
14(5):301–7.
117. Paule MG, Li M, Allen RR, Liu F, Zou X, Hotchkiss C, et al.
Ketamine anesthesia during the first week of life can cause long-lasting
cognitive deficits in rhesus monkeys. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2011 Apr;
33(2):220–30.
118. Dong C, Rovnaghi CR, Anand KJS. Ketamine alters the neurogenesis of
rat cortical neural stem progenitor cells. Crit Care Med. 2012 Aug;
40(8):2407–16.
119. Soriano SG, Anand KJS, Rovnaghi CR, Hickey PR. Of mice and men:
should we extrapolate rodent experimental data to the care of human
neonates? Anesthesiology. 2005 Apr; 102(4):866–8; author reply 868-869.
120. Cheung HM, Yew DTW. Effects of Perinatal Exposure to Ketamine on
the Developing Brain. Front Neurosci. 2019; 13:138.