References
(1997). Randomised placebo-controlled trial of effect of ramipril on
decline in glomerular filtration rate and risk of terminal renal failure
in proteinuric, non-diabetic nephropathy. The GISEN Group (Gruppo
Italiano di Studi Epidemiologici in Nefrologia). Lancet 349:1857-1863.
Amat-Santos IJ, Santos-Martinez S, Lopez-Otero D, Nombela-Franco L,
Gutierrez-Ibanes E, Del Valle R, et al. (2020). Ramipril in High
Risk Patients with COVID-19. J Am Coll Cardiol.
Arai T, Sekizawa K, Ohrui T, Fujiwara H, Yoshimi N, Matsuoka H, et
al. (2005). ACE inhibitors and protection against pneumonia in elderly
patients with stroke. Neurology 64: 573-574.
Arai T, Yasuda Y, Takaya T, Toshima S, Kashiki Y, Yoshimii N, et
al. (2000). Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin II
receptor antagonists, and symptomless dysphagia. Chest 117:1819-1820.
Bayes-Genis A (2017). Highlights of the 2016 European Society of
Cardiology Guidelines on Heart Failure. Eur Cardiol 12: 76-77.
Burchill LJ, Velkoska E, Dean RG, Griggs K, Patel SK, & Burrell LM
(2012). Combination renin-angiotensin system blockade and
angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 in experimental myocardial infarction:
implications for future therapeutic directions. Clin Sci (Lond)
123: 649-658.
Burrell LM, Risvanis J, Kubota E, Dean RG, MacDonald PS, Lu S, et
al. (2005). Myocardial infarction increases ACE2 expression in rat and
humans. Eur Heart J 26: 369-375; discussion 322-364.
Chalmers JD, Singanayagam A, Murray MP, & Hill AT (2008). Prior statin
use is associated with improved outcomes in community-acquired
pneumonia. Am J Med 121: 1002-1007 e1001.
Chen L, Li X, Chen M, Feng Y, & Xiong C (2020). The ACE2 expression in
human heart indicates new potential mechanism of heart injury among
patients infected with SARS-CoV-2. Cardiovasc Res.
Chen T, Wu D, Chen H, Yan W, Yang D, Chen G, et al. (2020).
Clinical characteristics of 113 deceased patients with coronavirus
disease 2019: retrospective study. BMJ 368: m1091.
Dahlof B, Devereux RB, Kjeldsen SE, Julius S, Beevers G, de Faire
U, et al. (2002). Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in the
Losartan Intervention For Endpoint reduction in hypertension study
(LIFE): a randomised trial against atenolol. Lancet 359:995-1003.
de Abajo FJ, Rodriguez-Martin S, Lerma V, Mejia-Abril G, Aguilar M,
Garcia-Luque A, et al. (2020). Use of
renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors and risk of COVID-19
requiring admission to hospital: a case-population study. Lancet.
de Frutos F, Mirabet S, Ortega-Paz L, Buera I, Darnes S, Farre N,
et al. (2020). Management of Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection
Fraction after ESC 2016 Heart Failure Guidelines: The Linx Registry. ESC
Heart Fail 7: 25-35.
Dublin S, Walker RL, Jackson ML, Nelson JC, Weiss NS, & Jackson LA
(2012). Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor use and pneumonia risk
in community-dwelling older adults: results from a population-based
case-control study. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 21: 1173-1182.
El Solh AA, Brewer T, Okada M, Bashir O, & Gough M (2004). Indicators
of recurrent hospitalization for pneumonia in the elderly. Journal of
the American Geriatrics Society 52: 2010-2015.
Etminan M, Zhang B, Fitzgerald M, & Brophy JM (2006). Do
angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin II receptor
blockers decrease the risk of hospitalization secondary to
community-acquired pneumonia? A nested case-control study.
Pharmacotherapy 26: 479-482.
Fang L, Karakiulakis G, & Roth M (2020). Are patients with hypertension
and diabetes mellitus at increased risk for COVID-19 infection? Lancet
Respir Med.
Feng Y, Ling Y, Bai T, Xie Y, Huang J, Li J, et al. (2020).
COVID-19 with Different Severity: A Multi-center Study of Clinical
Features. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.
Ferrario CM, Jessup J, Chappell MC, Averill DB, Brosnihan KB, Tallant
EA, et al. (2005). Effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme
inhibition and angiotensin II receptor blockers on cardiac
angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. Circulation 111: 2605-2610.
Gao C, Cai Y, Zhang K, Zhou L, Zhang Y, Zhang X, et al. (2020).
Association of hypertension and antihypertensive treatment with COVID-19
mortality: a retrospective observational study. Eur Heart J.
Gnavi R, Demaria M, Picariello R, Dalmasso M, Ricceri F, & Costa G
(2020). Therapy with agents acting on the renin-angiotensin system and
risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Clin Infect Dis.
Goicoechea M, Sanchez Camara LA, Macias N, Munoz de Morales A, Gonzalez
Rojas A, Bascunana A, et al. (2020). COVID-19: Clinical course
and outcomes of 36 maintenance hemodialysis patients from a single
center in Spain. Kidney Int.
Han H, Xie L, Liu R, Yang J, Liu F, Wu K, et al. (2020). Analysis
of heart injury laboratory parameters in 273 COVID-19 patients in one
hospital in Wuhan, China. J Med Virol.
Harada J, & Sekizawa K (2006). Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors
and pneumonia in elderly patients with intracerebral hemorrhage. Journal
of the American Geriatrics Society 54: 175-176.
Hendrickson CM, & Matthay MA (2013). Viral pathogens and acute lung
injury: investigations inspired by the SARS epidemic and the 2009 H1N1
influenza pandemic. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 34: 475-486.
Henry C, Zaizafoun M, Stock E, Ghamande S, Arroliga AC, & White HD
(2018). Impact of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and statins
on viral pneumonia. Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent) 31: 419-423.
Hou FF, Zhang X, Zhang GH, Xie D, Chen PY, Zhang WR, et al.(2006). Efficacy and safety of benazepril for advanced chronic renal
insufficiency. N Engl J Med 354: 131-140.
Huang Z, Cao J, Yao Y, Jin X, Luo Z, Xue Y, et al. (2020). The
effect of RAS blockers on the clinical characteristics of COVID-19
patients with hypertension. Ann Transl Med 8: 430.
Ishifuji T, Sando E, Kaneko N, Suzuki M, Kilgore PE, Ariyoshi K,
et al. (2017). Recurrent pneumonia among Japanese adults: disease
burden and risk factors. BMC Pulm Med 17: 12.
Ishiyama Y, Gallagher PE, Averill DB, Tallant EA, Brosnihan KB, &
Ferrario CM (2004). Upregulation of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2
after myocardial infarction by blockade of angiotensin II receptors.
Hypertension 43: 970-976.
Jung SY, Choi JC, You SH, & Kim WY (2020). Association of
renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors with COVID-19-related
outcomes in Korea: a nationwide population-based cohort study. Clin
Infect Dis.
Kanda A, Ebihara S, Yasuda H, Takashi O, Sasaki T, & Sasaki H (2004). A
combinatorial therapy for pneumonia in elderly people. Journal of the
American Geriatrics Society 52: 846-847.
Kasanuki H, Hagiwara N, Hosoda S, Sumiyoshi T, Honda T, Haze K, et
al. (2009). Angiotensin II receptor blocker-based vs. non-angiotensin
II receptor blocker-based therapy in patients with angiographically
documented coronary artery disease and hypertension: the Heart Institute
of Japan Candesartan Randomized Trial for Evaluation in Coronary Artery
Disease (HIJ-CREATE). Eur Heart J 30: 1203-1212.
Kober L, Torp-Pedersen C, Carlsen JE, Bagger H, Eliasen P, Lyngborg
K, et al. (1995). A clinical trial of the
angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor trandolapril in patients with
left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction. Trandolapril
Cardiac Evaluation (TRACE) Study Group. N Engl J Med 333:1670-1676.
Lee JS, Chui PY, Ma HM, Auyeung TW, Kng C, Law T, et al. (2015).
Does Low Dose Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitor Prevent Pneumonia
in Older People With Neurologic Dysphagia–A Randomized
Placebo-Controlled Trial. Journal of the American Medical Directors
Association 16: 702-707.
Li J, Wang X, Chen J, Zhang H, & Deng A (2020). Association of
Renin-Angiotensin System Inhibitors With Severity or Risk of Death in
Patients With Hypertension Hospitalized for Coronavirus Disease 2019
(COVID-19) Infection in Wuhan, China. JAMA Cardiol.
Li X, Xu S, Yu M, Wang K, Tao Y, Zhou Y, et al. (2020). Risk
factors for severity and mortality in adult COVID-19 inpatients in
Wuhan. J Allergy Clin Immunol.
Li Y, Zeng Z, Huang W, Zhou M, Zhang X, & Jiang W (2015).
Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition attenuates
lipopolysaccharide-induced lung injury by regulating the balance between
angiotensin-converting enzyme and angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 and
inhibiting mitogen-activated protein kinase activation. Shock
43: 395-404.
Liu CL, Shau WY, Chang CH, Wu CS, & Lai MS (2013). Pneumonia risk and
use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II
receptor blockers. J Epidemiol 23: 344-350.
Liu CL, Shau WY, Wu CS, & Lai MS (2012). Angiotensin-converting enzyme
inhibitor/angiotensin II receptor blockers and pneumonia risk among
stroke patients. J Hypertens 30: 2223-2229.
Madjid M, Safavi-Naeini P, Solomon SD, & Vardeny O (2020). Potential
Effects of Coronaviruses on the Cardiovascular System: A Review. JAMA
Cardiol.
Mancia G, Rea F, Ludergnani M, Apolone G, & Corrao G (2020).
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System Blockers and the Risk of Covid-19.
N Engl J Med.
Marciniak C, Korutz AW, Lin E, Roth E, Welty L, & Lovell L (2009).
Examination of selected clinical factors and medication use as risk
factors for pneumonia during stroke rehabilitation: a case-control
study. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 88: 30-38.
Mehra MR, Desai SS, Kuy S, Henry TD, & Patel AN (2020a). Cardiovascular
Disease, Drug Therapy, and Mortality in Covid-19. N Engl J Med.
Mehra MR, Desai SS, Kuy S, Henry TD, & Patel AN (2020b). Retraction:
Cardiovascular Disease, Drug Therapy, and Mortality in Covid-19. N Engl
J Med. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa2007621. N Engl J Med.
Mehta N, Kalra A, Nowacki AS, Anjewierden S, Han Z, Bhat P, et
al. (2020). Association of Use of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme
Inhibitors and Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers With Testing Positive
for Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). JAMA Cardiol.
Meng J, Xiao G, Zhang J, He X, Ou M, Bi J, et al. (2020).
Renin-angiotensin system inhibitors improve the clinical outcomes of
COVID-19 patients with hypertension. Emerg Microbes Infect 9:757-760.
Mizgerd JP (2017). Pathogenesis of severe pneumonia: advances and
knowledge gaps. Curr Opin Pulm Med 23: 193-197.
Mortensen EM, Nakashima B, Cornell J, Copeland LA, Pugh MJ, Anzueto
A, et al. (2012). Population-based study of statins, angiotensin
II receptor blockers, and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors on
pneumonia-related outcomes. Clin Infect Dis 55: 1466-1473.
Mortensen EM, Pugh MJ, Copeland LA, Restrepo MI, Cornell JE, Anzueto
A, et al. (2008). Impact of statins and angiotensin-converting
enzyme inhibitors on mortality of subjects hospitalised with pneumonia.
Eur Respir J 31: 611-617.
Mortensen EM, Restrepo MI, Anzueto A, & Pugh J (2005). The impact of
prior outpatient ACE inhibitor use on 30-day mortality for patients
hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia. BMC Pulm Med 5:12.
Mortensen EM, Restrepo MI, Copeland LA, Pugh JA, & Anzueto A (2008).
Association of hydrophilic versus lipophilic angiotensin-converting
enzyme inhibitor use on pneumonia-related mortality. Am J Med Sci
336: 462-466.
Mukamal KJ, Ghimire S, Pandey R, O’Meara ES, & Gautam S (2010).
Antihypertensive medications and risk of community-acquired pneumonia. J
Hypertens 28: 401-405.
Myles PR, Hubbard RB, Gibson JE, Pogson Z, Smith CJ, & McKeever TM
(2009). The impact of statins, ACE inhibitors and gastric acid
suppressants on pneumonia mortality in a UK general practice population
cohort. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 18: 697-703.
Myles PR, Hubbard RB, McKeever TM, Pogson Z, Smith CJ, & Gibson JE
(2009). Risk of community-acquired pneumonia and the use of statins, ace
inhibitors and gastric acid suppressants: a population-based
case-control study. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 18: 269-275.
Noris M, Benigni A, & Remuzzi G (2020). The case of Complement
activation in COVID-19 multiorgan impact. Kidney Int.
Ocaranza MP, Godoy I, Jalil JE, Varas M, Collantes P, Pinto M, et
al. (2006). Enalapril attenuates downregulation of
Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 in the late phase of ventricular
dysfunction in myocardial infarcted rat. Hypertension 48:572-578.
Ohkubo T, Chapman N, Neal B, Woodward M, Omae T, Chalmers J, et
al. (2004). Effects of an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor-based
regimen on pneumonia risk. American journal of respiratory and critical
care medicine 169: 1041-1045.
Okaishi K, Morimoto S, Fukuo K, Niinobu T, Hata S, Onishi T, et
al. (1999). Reduction of risk of pneumonia associated with use of
angiotensin I converting enzyme inhibitors in elderly inpatients.
American journal of hypertension 12: 778-783.
Reynolds HR, Adhikari S, Pulgarin C, Troxel AB, Iturrate E, Johnson
SB, et al. (2020). Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
Inhibitors and Risk of Covid-19. N Engl J Med.
Rubin EJ (2020). Expression of Concern: Mehra MR et al. Cardiovascular
Disease, Drug Therapy, and Mortality in Covid-19. N Engl J Med. DOI:
10.1056/NEJMoa2007621. N Engl J Med.
Schrader J, Luders S, Kulschewski A, Hammersen F, Plate K, Berger
J, et al. (2005). Morbidity and Mortality After Stroke,
Eprosartan Compared with Nitrendipine for Secondary Prevention:
principal results of a prospective randomized controlled study (MOSES).
Stroke 36: 1218-1226.
Sekizawa K, Matsui T, Nakagawa T, Nakayama K, & Sasaki H (1998). ACE
inhibitors and pneumonia. Lancet 352: 1069.
Shah S, McArthur E, Farag A, Nartey M, Fleet JL, Knoll GA, et al.(2014). Risk of hospitalization for community acquired pneumonia with
renin-angiotensin blockade in elderly patients: a population-based
study. PLoS One 9: e110165.
Solomon SD, Rizkala AR, Gong J, Wang W, Anand IS, Ge J, et al.(2017). Angiotensin Receptor Neprilysin Inhibition in Heart Failure With
Preserved Ejection Fraction: Rationale and Design of the PARAGON-HF
Trial. JACC Heart failure 5: 471-482.
Takahashi T, Morimoto S, Okaishi K, Kanda T, Nakahashi T, Okuro M,
et al. (2005). Reduction of pneumonia risk by an angiotensin
I-converting enzyme inhibitor in elderly Japanese inpatients according
to insertion/deletion polymorphism of the angiotensin I-converting
enzyme gene. American journal of hypertension 18: 1353-1359.
Tan ND, Qiu Y, Xing XB, Ghosh S, Chen MH, & Mao R (2020). Associations
between Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitors and Angiotensin II
Receptor Blocker Use, Gastrointestinal Symptoms, and Mortality among
Patients with COVID-19. Gastroenterology.
Teramoto S, & Ouchi Y (1999). ACE inhibitors and prevention of
aspiration pneumonia in elderly hypertensives. Lancet 353: 843.
Tian S, Hu W, Niu L, Liu H, Xu H, & Xiao SY (2020). Pulmonary Pathology
of Early-Phase 2019 Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pneumonia in Two
Patients With Lung Cancer. J Thorac Oncol.
Tsukagoshi H, Ishioka T, Noda M, Kozawa K, & Kimura H (2013). Molecular
epidemiology of respiratory viruses in virus-induced asthma. Front
Microbiol 4: 278.
Vaduganathan M, Vardeny O, Michel T, McMurray JJV, Pfeffer MA, &
Solomon SD (2020). Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System Inhibitors in
Patients with Covid-19. N Engl J Med.
van de Garde EM, Souverein PC, Hak E, Deneer VH, van den Bosch JM, &
Leufkens HG (2007). Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor use and
protection against pneumonia in patients with diabetes. J Hypertens
25: 235-239.
van de Garde EM, Souverein PC, van den Bosch JM, Deneer VH, & Leufkens
HG (2006). Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor use and pneumonia
risk in a general population. Eur Respir J 27: 1217-1222.
Weber M (1997). Clinical safety and tolerability of losartan. Clin Ther
19: 604-616; discussion 603.
Widimsky J, Kremer HJ, Jerie P, & Uhlir O (1995). Czech and Slovak
spirapril intervention study (CASSIS). A randomized, placebo and
active-controlled, double-blind multicentre trial in patients with
congestive heart failure. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 49: 95-102.
Wrapp D, Wang N, Corbett KS, Goldsmith JA, Hsieh CL, Abiona O, et
al. (2020). Cryo-EM structure of the 2019-nCoV spike in the prefusion
conformation. Science 367: 1260-1263.
Yang G, Tan Z, Zhou L, Yang M, Peng L, Liu J, et al. (2020).
Effects Of ARBs And ACEIs On Virus Infection, Inflammatory Status And
Clinical Outcomes In COVID-19 Patients With Hypertension: A Single
Center Retrospective Study. Hypertension.
Zhang P, Zhu L, Cai J, Lei F, Qin JJ, Xie J, et al. (2020).
Association of Inpatient Use of Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitors
and Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers with Mortality Among Patients With
Hypertension Hospitalized With COVID-19. Circ Res.
Zheng YY, Ma YT, Zhang JY, & Xie X (2020). COVID-19 and the
cardiovascular system. Nat Rev Cardiol.
Zhou F, Liu YM, Xie J, Li H, Lei F, Yang H, et al. (2020).
Comparative impacts of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors versus
angiotensin II receptor blockers on the risk of COVID-19 mortality.
Hypertension.