Introduction:
The Cubozoa (box jellyfishes) are a class of jellyfish with relatively
low species diversity (~50 species; Kingsford, Michael
J. & Mooney, 2014). Many cubozoans are regarded as dangerous and even
life-threatening venomous animals that pose challenges to managers of
coastal resources in tropical and subtropical regions (Kingsfordet al. 2018). One species, Chironex fleckeri, is
considered one of the world’s most venomous marine species and has been
responsible in Australia for at least 70 deaths in the past 50 years,
with mortalities now being increasingly recognised and reported from
other Indo-Pacific countries (Seymour, 2002; Kingsford et al.2012). Furthermore, envenomation from another 10 cubozoan species can
result in the debilitating condition ‘Irukandji syndrome’ (Ponce et al.,
2015). Envenomations and Irukandji syndrome can lead to death, or
serious injury, with symptoms that include lower back pain, muscle
cramps, vomiting/sweating, vasoconstriction, prostration, possible
hypertension, feeling of impending doom and acute heart failure or death
(Tibballs et al. 2012). Though these jellyfishes pose major
health risks to humans, their spatial rareness and elusiveness makes
detection in marine waters difficult and as a result their ecology and
distribution is presently poorly understood (Tibballs et al.2012; Kingsford & Mooney 2014)
Jellyfish have polymorphic lifecycles, where the pelagic adult medusa
are the most conspicuous form. The small benthic polyp stages (asexual
stages) are usually cryptic, with Chironex fleckeri the
only cubozoan species where polyps have been detected in situ(Hartwick 1991). This is because benthic cubozoan polyps are
minute (< 2 mm) and even the adult medusoid (sexual phases) of
some taxa can be very small. This alone has contributed to the many
challenges of studying cubozoans (Kingsford & Mooney 2014).
The biogeographic range of a species generally corresponds to a
‘metapopulation’ made up of relatively autonomous ‘stocks’ with little
connectivity among them. Moreover, within stocks small geographic areas
such as bays may be considered ‘local populations’ that can have a high
level of connectivity (Kingsford & Mooney 2014). Recent research has
suggested that even small local populations of some cubozoans may have
little exchange with other populations (Schlaefer et al. 2020);
but critical to understanding levels of connectivity is a knowledge of
the movements of medusa and the sources of polyps. The accurate
detection of cubozoans is critical for minimising the risk of
envenomation to humans and to better understand their ecology (Kingsfordet al. 2018). Another justification for understanding population
structure and the dispersal potential of jellyfish is related to climate
change. It has been predicted that jellyfish blooms will intensify in
occurrence and the geographic range of deadly jellyfish will expand (van
Walraven et al. 2016). Given the potential changes in level of
risk and the related threat to tourism, it is important to develop
technologies that improve the detection of cubozoans as they expand
their ranges.
Environmental DNA (eDNA) has the potential to greatly enhance research
on the ecology of cubozoans and to assist managers of coastal resources
to minimise the risks of envenomation (Kingsford et al. 2018).
Environmental DNA technology, which is the detection of DNA shed in the
environment by an organism as a part of normal metabolism, excretion,
death and reproduction. This technique has been used to detect rare
(Jerde et al. 2011; Keskin et al. 2016; Simpfendorferet al. 2016), invasive (Robson et al. 2016) and
sporadically distributed species, including scyphozoan jellyfish. For
example, (Minamoto et al. 2017) used an eDNA approach to detect
presence of medusae of the Japanese sea nettle (Chrysaora
pacifica ) in Mazizuru Bay, Kyoto, while (Gaynor et al. 2017)
looked at the applicability of eDNA to detect early life-stages ofChrysaora quinquecirrha in Barnegat Bay, New Jersey. However, to
date there has been no published works on the use of an eDNA approach to
detect occurrence of venomous cubozoans and the focus has only been on
ephyrae and medusa, not the benthic polyps.
The objective of this study was to develop and validate species-specific
PCR primers that could be used to detect four cubozoan species that
occur in marine waters along the east coast of tropical Australia;
namely, Chironex fleckeri, Copula sivickisi, Carybdea xaymacanaand Carukia barnesi. Of the species selected the chirodropidC. fleckeri is considered highly venomous and deadly to humans,
and victims of envenomation by the carybdeids C. xaymacana andC. barnesi often exhibit symptoms of Irukandji syndrome;C . sivickisi is harmless to humans. Our specific aims were
as follows: (1) develop species-specific primers to detect presence of
each of these cubozoans; (2) experimentally determine the degradation
rate of cubozoan eDNA; (3) determine if eDNA could detect cubozoan
medusae in the field and ascertain if the amount of eDNA correlated with
abundance as estimated from visual surveys; (4) determine if presence of
cryptic cubozoan polyps can be detected with eDNA at times when medusa
are absent using Copula sivickisi as the model organism.