The learning process
The process of learning includes all the steps needed for information
acquisition based on experiences encountered. Broadly, these steps
include attention to relevant information, perception of the
information, acquisition of that information, finally storage and
retrieval (memory) of that information. At this point that the
information can be acted upon, for example, to make a movement decision
(Figure 1).
Diverse factors may impede or enhance an animal’s attention to
information from its environment or from other individuals. For example,
animals in unfamiliar environments may be more (or less) observant of
environmental cues
(Wolfe
1969) and certain types of social interaction may increase or decrease
attentiveness, leading to social learning
(Heyes
1994). Other factors, such as the internal state of an animal
(Dorrance
& Zentall 2001) or its risk sensitivity (Bacon et al . 2010) may
also play a role in determining attentiveness (Figure 1).
The perception and acquisition of information depend on an animal’s
sensory capacities. For most animals, certain sensory cues will be
easier to detect than others, which can lead to different hierarchies of
sensory cues, though that hierarchy may itself be altered contextually.
For example, many aural and olfactory cues may be more important than
visual information at night (Zollner and Lima 1999). Once acquired,
information must be committed to memory as part of the learning process.
Storage and retrieval of learned information is essential for decision
making, which can be based on recent events or information remembered
over long periods of time (Abrahms et al . 2019; Polansky et
al ., 2015).
A test of successful learning is the ability to make a decision using
information from past experiences that discriminates among alternative
strategies. For example, in laboratory studies, exposure to spatially
distributed food rewards in mazes can affect the movement choices of
rats
(Leonard
and McNaughton 1990). Similarly, for wolves, memory-related statistical
metrics like ‘time since last visit’ to a location may form the basis
for movement decision discrimination (Schlägel et al . 2017). Of
course, this link between experiences and decision making is
context-dependent, being modulated by layers of complexity regarding
habitats, social status, and internal states (Figure 1).