Machine Learning Example Empirical Examples Empirical Examples Empirical Examples Empirical Examples
Step
AlphaGo Zero Silver et al. 2017 Hummingbird Traplining Tello-Ramos et al. 2015 Crane Migration Mueller et al. 2013 Experimental Elk Translocation (Frair et al. 2007 Sheep and Moose Migration Jesmer et al. 2018
Task Win Forage efficiently Migrate efficiently Exploit environment optimally Exploit environment optimally
Experience Repeated play against self Movement within a controlled array of feeders Repeated migration journeys across years Movement away from initial capture/release location Movement and population persistence over decades
Performance measure
Victories
Path distance per bout
Deviations from straight-line migratory path
Settlement and survival rate
Proportion of green wave exploited Percent of population migrating
Demonstrated improvement over time (or in comparison to benchmark)
Increased competitive ranking
Decreased length of movement path
Decreased length of migratory journey
Increased rate of residency
Increased migratory tracking and universal migration
Plausible learning mechanisms
Reinforcement learning
Positive reinforcement
Spatial memory Social learning Positive reinforcement Positive reinforcement (forage) Negative reinforcement (predation) Horizontal social transmission Vertical transmission Positive reinforcement (individual moose foraging) Positive reinforcement (social sheep foraging) Cultural transmission
Alternative explanations
Not necessary
Controlled experiment
Tested and rejected wind-mediated movement and ontogeny
Mortality-mediated natural selection
Mortality-mediated natural selection Population growth and expansion Kinesis
Evidence of learning?
Yes
Yes
Yes
Consistent with learning but not direct evidence. Population-level rather than individual-level metrics impede direct evidence for learning. Consistent with learning but not direct evidence. Population-level rather than individual-level metrics impede direct evidence for learning.