Total dissolved solids (TDS)
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) comprise major ions such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride, sulphate, nitrate, carbonate, and bicarbonate are dissolved in groundwater (Paul et al., 2019). TDS ranges from 358 to 3716 mg/L, with an average of 1316.55 mg/L in the study area. As per WHO and BIS standards, 3.59 Sq.km area fall in acceptable, 444.08 Sq.km area falls in most permissible, and 219.28 Sq.km area (Fig.3c) falls under the undesirable limit of TDS. A higher value of TDS causes major health issues such as stones in the kidney, heart diseases, and stomach problems.