Species Sample size Genotyping method used N of EPP cases found References
Azara’s owl monkey (Aotus azarae) 35 offspring of 29 family groups (128 animals in total) 14 microsatellite loci 0 (Huck et al., 2014)
Bornean gibbon (Hylobates muelleri) 4 offspring of 4 family groups (13 animals in total) 16 microsatellite loci 0 (Oka & Takenaka, 2001)
Kirk’s dik-dik (Madoqua kirkii) 12 offspring of 11 family groups (68 animals in total) 7 microsatellite loci 0 (Brotherton et al., 1997)
Coyotes (Canis latrans) 96 offspring if 18 family groups (236 animals in total) 12 microsatellite loci 0 (Hennessy, Dubach, & Gehrt, 2012)
California mouse (Peromyscus californicus) 82 offspring of 22 complete groups, plus 17 offspring from incomplete groups (samples from father or mother not available) DNA fingerprinting using restriction enzyme 0 (Ribble, 1991)
Malagasy giant jumping rat (Hypogeomys antimena) 60 offspring of 28 family groups (139 animals in total) Polymorphisms of a major histocompatibility complex class II gene DQA using sequencing and single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis 0, with 3 cases of male and 3 cases of female replacement but no litters sired by multiple fathers (Sommer & Tichy 1999)
Taiwan vole (Microtus kikuchii) 31 offspring of 20 family groups 10 microsatellite loci 0, with 2 cases of female replacement but no litters sired by multiple fathers (Wu, Chiang, & Lin, 2012)
Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber) (a) 18 offspring of 9 colonies plus 6 family groups with only adults (38 animals in total) (Syrůčková et al., 2015); (b) 166 offspring of 48 family groups (356 animals in total) (a) 15 microsatellite loci; (b) 27 single nucleotide polymorphisms (a) 0, with one possible female replacement but no litters sired by multiple fathers; (b) 9, corresponding to the EPP proportion of 0.054; 7 offspring were sired by neighboring males, in 2 cases the paternity could not be assigned (a) (Syrůčková et al., 2015); (b) (Nimje et al., 2019)
Indri (Indri indri) 12 offspring of 7 family groups (26 animals in total) 6 microsatellite loci 1, corresponding to the EPP proportion of 0.083; social father excluded as genetic father but no other male indicated as likely father (Bonadonna et al., 2019)
Golden-cheeked gibbons (Nomascus gabriellae) 10 offspring of 6 family groups (29 animals in total) 8 microsatellite loci 1, corresponding to the EPP proportion of 0.1; a lone non-territorial male confirmed as genetic father (Kenyon et al., 2011)
White-handed gibbons (Hylobates lar) 41 offspring, 27 born in pair-living groups and 15 born in multi-male groups (89 animals in total) 12 microsatellite loci 3, corresponding to the EPP proportion of 0.073; 2 were sired by neighboring males, in 1 case the paternity could not be assigned (Barelli et al., 2013)