Traits |
Mechanisms of increased resistance or
tolerance |
Resistance – tolerance - escape |
References |
Whole plant |
|
|
|
Plant growth form |
Architecture, branching, reiteration, leaf density,
leaf arrangement, determinant growth |
Resistance and tolerance |
(Ando et al.
2007; Costes et al. 2013) |
Plant lifespan |
Annuals support fewer pathogens than perennials |
Resistance and tolerance |
(Thrall et al.
1993) |
Nutrient content |
Plants with high nutrient contents are more
susceptible to pathogens |
Resistance and tolerance |
(Hoffland
et al. 1996; El-Hajj et al. 2004; McElrone et al.
2005; Veresoglou et al. 2013; Fernández-Escobar
2019) |
Plant height |
Increased stem height and vertical elongation slow
disease progression |
Tolerance |
(Marquis et al.
2001; Robert et al. 2018) |
Plant growth rate |
Slow growth rate (trade off with growth and
resistance) |
Resistance |
(Hoffland
et al. 1996; Parker & Gilbert 2018) |
Canopy |
Shorter narrower canopy |
Resistance and tolerance |
(Kolkman & Kelly
2002) |
Defense |
|
|
|
Plant secondary compounds |
Production of cytokinins, flavonoids,
phenols, H2O2, glucosynolates,
non-protein amino acids, terpenes, phytoalexins, salicylic acid, methyl
jasmonate, nicotine, furocoumarins |
Resistance |
(Bennett
& Wallsgrove 1994; Erb et al. 2009; Zhang et al. 2009;
Hantsch et al. 2014; Akhtar et al. 2020; Noronha Souza
et al. 2020) |
Plant physical defense mechanisms |
Papillae, lignin, silicon, dense
trichomes |
Resistance |
(Valkama
et al. 2005; Chattopadhyay et al. 2011; Underwood 2012;
Fernández-Escobar 2019; Zúñiga et al. 2019) |
Defense priming |
Plants with inducible defense are more resistant to
pathogens |
Resistance |
(Hilker et al.
2016) |
Leaf characteristics |
|
|
|
Leaf size, cuticle size |
Thickened leaf cuticle and epidermis can
provide physical resistance against fungal pathogen infection. |
Resistance |
(Mendgen
et al. 1996; Bradley et al. 2003; Carver & Gurr 2008;
Serrano et al. 2014) |
Stomata |
Lower stomatal density and stomatal index, stomatal function
(closure) |
Resistance |
(Melotto et al.
2006; Chattopadhyay et al. 2011) |
Leaf expansion rate |
Faster leaf expansion |
Resistance and tolerance |
(Marquis et al.
2001) |
Leaf mass per area (LMA) |
Higher LMA, less airspace, and smaller cell
sizes. |
Resistance and tolerance |
(Ďurkovič et al.
2013; Smith et al. 2018) |
Shoot traits |
|
|
|
Wood traits |
Higher wood density, higher parenchyma fraction, smaller
xylem ray width and vessel diameter |
Resistance and tolerance |
(Augspurger &
Kelly 1984; Romero & Bolker 2008; Morris et al.
2016) |
Bark |
Smooth bark may decrease insect vectored pathogens |
Resistance |
(Ferrenberg & Mitton
2014) |
Stem traits |
Narrow scattered vessels |
Tolerance |
(Solla et al.
2005; Pouzoulet et al. 2014) |
Plant diameter |
Midrange peak in resistance with stem diameter |
Resistance and tolerance |
(Li et al.
2006) |
Reproductive traits |
|
|
|
Seed traits |
Small seeds, fast germination, hard seeds, shade tolerant
species |
Resistance |
(Augspurger &
Kelly 1984; Pringle et al. 2007; Solla et al. 2011;
Beckstead et al. 2014) |
Dispersal |
Greater dispersal distances |
Escape |
(Augspurger & Kelly
1984; Cazetta et al. 2008) |
Flower |
Flower duration, Flower age, Style length, Nectar sugar
concentration, Nectar sugar composition, Antimicrobial nectar, VOC |
Resistance |
(Stephenson
2012; McArt et al. 2014) |
Plant propagation type |
Sexual reproduction increases genetic diversity |
Resistance and tolerance |
(Parker 1994; Busch
et al. 2004) |
Fruit |
Physical protection, smaller fruit |
Resistance |
(Cipollini et al.
2004; Beckman & Muller-Landau 2011) |
Species genotype (chromosome) |
Higher ploidy |
Resistance |
(Oswald & Nuismer 2007;
Harms et al. 2020) |
Plant ontogeny |
Early senescence reduces disease outbreaks |
Tolerance |
(Robert et al.
2018) |
Root traits |
|
|
|
Root biomass |
Roots can serve as storage organs for regrowth after
aboveground damage |
Tolerance |
(Erb et
al. 2009) |
Surface area |
Higher root surface area higher disease resistance |
Resistance |
(Singh et
al. 2019) |
Root growth rate and lifespan |
Faster growth and higher turnover, thin,
low nitrogen content |
Resistance and tolerance |
(Yanai & Eissenstat
2002; Atucha et al. 2014) |
Root diameter |
Larger diameter and biomass of secondary roots |
Resistance and tolerance |
(Solla et al.
2011) |
Symbiosis |
|
|
|
Mycorrhiza |
Plants forming mycorrhizal associations show more
resistance against pathogen infection |
Resistance and tolerance |
(Whipps 2004; Sikes
et al. 2009) |
Endophytes |
Endophytes can induce resistance |
Resistance |
(Schardl et al.
2004; Dini-Andreote 2020) |
Vectors (pollinators and herbivores) |
Types of pollinators can affect
transport of different pathogens. For instance, specialist vs.
Generalist. Generalists can transport more pathogens across different
plant species compared to specialists. |
Escape |
(Shykoff & Bucheli
1995) |
Rhizosphere bacteria |
Induce resistance to pathogens |
Resistance |
(van Loon et
al. 1998; Van Wees et al. 2008; Zamioudis & Pieterse
2012) |
Other |
|
|
|
Species occurrence range |
pathogen richness was associated with range
size for introduced plants. |
Resistance |
(Mitchell
et al. 2010; Hantsch et al. 2014) |
Species habitat |
Plants that occur in dry habitats have fewer pathogens
than those in wet areas |
Resistance |
(Bradley et al.
2003) |
Formation of monospecific stand |
Plants forming monospecific stands are
more susceptible to pathogens |
Resistance |
(Burdon
et al. 1989; Packer & Clay 2000; Clay et al. 2008;
Mordecai 2011) |