INTRODUCTION

Soil erosion by water threatened the food security and environmental protection of the globe (Lieskovský & Kenderessy 2014). The sub-Saharan African countries, including Ethiopia, are the most affected by soil erosion (Israel et al., 2020; Terefe et al., 2020). Globally, soil erosion affects about 10 million hectares of cultivated land each year, with Africa accounting for 65 percent of the damage (Vlek et al., 2008; Pimentel, 1995). In Ethiopia, the amount of soil loss reported about 2 billion t yr-1. The annual average soil loss from cultivated fields is about 100 t ha-1 (FAO, 1986; Bewket & Sterk 2002).
Gumara River watershed is one of the major tributaries to Lake Tana and the Blue Nile river basin (Setegn et al., 2008). The watershed attributes extreme soil erosion, high runoff and the highest rainfall intensity (Belayneh et al., 2019; Fazzini et al., 2015). Different researches were completed to quantify the rate of soil erosion in the watershed. According to Easton et al. (2010), the predicted soil loss from Gumara watershed was about a maximum of 84 t ha-1yr-1. A study conducted by Belayneh et al. (2019) and Zimale et al. (2017), reported that an average soil loss rate of 42 and 49.2 t ha-1 yr-1, respectively. Wubie & Assen (2019) showed the soil degradation index (SDI) in the watershed was in the range of -236 to -364%, indicating that the area is subjected to high soil erosion.  To reverse this trend, the Ethiopian government with the help of non-governmental organizations started a large-scale watershed development program (WDP) to increase agricultural productivity, and reduce soil erosion. The program focused on the construction of the physical structure in the highlands for the last two decades. However, the rate of soil erosion was not decreasing (Abate et al., 2015).
The effectiveness of conservation measures over longer periods evaluated as not effective, especially in the sub-humid and humid monsoonal climates (Yeraswork, 2000; Mhiret et al., 2020). Whereas, in the semi-arid highlands of the Tigray region, the implemented measures were effective in reducing soil erosion and increasing water storage (Nyssen et al., 2009). In humid highlands, sediment concentrations in the major rivers showed an increasing trend (Abate et al., 2016). According to Haile et al., (2006), the failure was related to the poor design of soil and water conservation practices (SWCP). Watershed planners lack knowledge of the hydrological processes and the landscape location (Guzman et al., 2017b, Bayable et al., 2016). In areas like Ethiopia where SWC was implemented in community mobilization, the standards of conservation measures were influenced by inadequate expert follow-up, lack of farmers’ technical skill, and poor community participation (Sinore et al., 2018; Zimale et al., 2017; Reij et al., 1996).
The livelihood of smallholder farmers largely dependent on the long-term viability of WDP. The success of development projects largely determined by community participation and commitment. Participation is a group effort to establish long-term management requirements, identify objectives, determine potentials, technology selection and policies, and monitor and analyze outcomes (Johnson et al., 2001). Community participation promotes long-term watershed management activities (Lubell & Fulton 2007). However, government-sponsored conservation efforts, have taken a top-down approach, failing to understand the needs, concerns, and traditions of local people. The local people who were worried about and motivated to take action must have built up WDP from the bottom-up (Mullen & Alison 1999). Conservation programs failed to produce immediate results benefiting the poor farmer, making it hard to invest in long-term impacts. The objective of this research was, therefore, to better understand the general approaches used in the implementation of SWCPs in watersheds and the design of WDP in the Gumara watershed, to efficiently maintain soil erosion to the downstream water bodies.