Effects of phenological shifts on outcomes of
host-parasitoid interactions
Phenological shifts had the strongest effect on the strength and
persistence of the host-parasitoid interactions and this effect
persisted even after accounting for changes across temperatures,
resource competition, and presence of alternative host species. This is
consistent with other host-parasitoid studies which have highlighted the
importance of windows of vulnerability and correct stage (age) in
determining the immediate and long-term effects of interactions (Tuda &
Shimada 1995; Benrey & Denno 1997; Chi & Su 2006; Stacconi et
al. 2015). Thus, any phenological shift that makes this system more or
less asynchronous could lead to the destabilization of interactions
(Rasmussen et al. 2014; Ren et al. 2020), which suggest
that some degree of temporal asynchrony may be required in order to
maintain the stability of specialized, antagonistic interactions, such
as host-parasitoid or plant-herbivore interactions (Boege & Marquis
2006; Visser et al. 2012; Ren et al. 2020).