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\begin{document}

\title{A continental-scale survey of \emph{Wolbachia} infections in blue
butterflies reveals evidence of interspecific transfer and invasion
dynamics}



\author[1]{Vivaswat Shastry }%
\author[2]{Katherine Bell}%
\author[3]{C. Alex Buerkle}%
\author[4]{James Fordyce}%
\author[5]{Matthew Forister}%
\author[6]{Zachariah Gompert}%
\author[7]{Sarah Lebeis}%
\author[6]{Lauren Lucas}%
\author[8]{Zach Marion}%
\author[9]{Chris Nice}%
\affil[1]{University of Chicago Biological Sciences Division}%
\affil[2]{University of Nevada Reno}%
\affil[3]{University of Wyoming}%
\affil[4]{University of Tennessee}%
\affil[5]{University of Nevada, Reno}%
\affil[6]{Utah State University}%
\affil[7]{Michigan State University}%
\affil[8]{University of Canterbury}%
\affil[9]{Texas State University}%


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  \date{May 26, 2024}


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\begin{abstract}
Infections by maternally inherited bacterial endosymbionts, especially
\emph{Wolbachia}, are common in insects and other invertebrates but
infection dynamics across species ranges are largely under studied.
Specifically, we lack a broad understanding of the origin of
\emph{Wolbachia} infections in novel hosts and the factors governing
their spread. We used Genotype-by-Sequencing (GBS) data from previous
population genomics studies for range-wide surveys of~\emph{Wolbachia}
presence and genetic diversity in over 2,700 North American butterflies
of the genus~\emph{Lycaeides}. As few as one sequence read identified by
assembly to a~\emph{Wolbachia} pan-reference genome provided high
accuracy in detecting infections as determined by confirmatory PCR
tests. Using a conservative threshold of five reads, we detected
\emph{Wolbachia} in all but two of the 107 sampling localities spanning
the continent, and with most localities having high infection
frequencies (mean = 91\textbackslash{}\% infection rate). Three major
lineages of~\emph{Wolbachia} were identified as separate strains that
appear to represent three separate invasions of~\emph{Lycaeides}
butterflies. Overall, we found extensive evidence for acquisition of
\emph{Wolbachia} through interspecific transfer between host lineages.
Strain~\emph{wLyc}C was confined to a single butterfly taxon, hybrid
lineages derived from it, and closely adjacent populations in other
taxa. While the other two strains were detected throughout the rest of
the continent, strain~\emph{wLyc}B almost always co-occurred with
\emph{wLyc}A. Our demographic modeling suggests~\emph{wLyc}B is a recent
invasion. These results demonstrate the utility of using resequencing
data from hosts to quantify~\emph{Wolbachia} genetic variation and
provide evidence of multiple colonizations of novel hosts through
hybridization between butterfly lineages and complex dynamics between
\emph{Wolbachia} strains.%
\end{abstract}%



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