DISCUSSION
Senna (Cassia senna) is commonly used as a laxative in different herbal-based medicines. Both its leaves and pods contain active ingredients of an anthraquinone nature, mainly Sennosides A and Sennosides B (hydroxyanthracene heterosides). These undergo bacterial hydrolysis and subsequent metabolic reduction in the large intestine, where they are converted into active metabolites in the form of rhein anthrone (1). It is classified as a contact or stimulant laxative; its activity is based on two different mechanisms of action. On the one hand, by direct stimulation of the nerve plexus in the large intestine mucosa, which increases peristalsis. On the other hand, it modifies fluids and electrolytes absorption in the colon, and appears to have a secretory effect (1).
In the large intestine, in vitro models have shown that sennoside metabolites undergo a significant secretory activity, probably mediated by efflux pumps (2), which limits its passage into the plasmatic circulation. The vast majority of sennosides are excreted via the feces (approximately 90%), and the metabolites that reach plasma circulation are excreted via the kidneys and bile. Cytochrome-mediated hepatic metabolism has not been described. There are few described interactions between Senna and drugs, most of them related to electrolyte disturbances due to concomitant use with other laxatives or due to increased intestinal transit that may limit the absorption of drugs with low bioavailability (3, 4).
Tacrolimus is an anticalcineurin drug, with a narrow therapeutic index, used as an immunosuppressant in the prophylaxis and treatment of renal, hepatic, and cardiac graft rejection. Tacrolimus is metabolised mainly through CYP3A4 and CYP3A5 in the liver and intestine and to a lesser extent by CYP2C19. Mainly in the intestine, tacrolimus is a substrate for efflux pumps such as P-glycoprotein (P-gp) (4). Several interactions between tacrolimus and various phytotherapeutic compounds have been described. Those that are inducers of CYP3A4 and P-gp (e.g.,Hypericum perforatum ) have been shown to significantly reduce considerably the plasma concentrations of tacrolimus. Whereas those that act by inhibiting CYP3A4 and P-gp (e.g., Citrus paradisi or Citrus grandis ”grapefruit juice”, Curcuma longa, etc.) increase the plasma concentrations of the immunosuppressant (5). Previous studies have shown P-gp substrate concentration-dependent saturation with cyclosporine (6) or taxanes (7). Although the P-gp inducers have not shown relevant effects, its inhibition or saturation, as hypothesized in this case, could be clinically relevant (8). Administration of a single dose of verapamil (potent P-gp inhibitor) one hour before or concomitantly with dabigatran exilate (P-gp substrates drugs not related to CYP metabolism) increased AUC 2.4-fold and 2.1-fold respectively (9). Concomitant administration of two substrates may saturate the efflux pumps, increasing the exposure to both drugs. The administration of the immediate or extended-release tacrolimus formulations, which reach their Cmax between 1-3h, makes the interaction more likely. The clinical impact of the interaction is based on the saturation of the efflux pumps in the absorption phase of tacrolimus, reducing its expulsion into the intestinal lumen before entering to plasmatic circulation.
Although the percentage of Glycyrrhiza glabra and Mentha piperitapresent in the herbal preparation is negligible compared to that of Cassia, the potential interactions with tacrolimus that could have clinical relevance were revised.
Glycyrrhiza glabra , traditionally known as a specie of licorice, is a plant of theFabaceae family, whose roots are used as a traditional remedy in the treatment of dyspepsia and peptic ulcers. It is important to differentiate the species of licorice because there are substantial differences in its constituents and their interaction profile varies. Although there are discrepancies, recent data suggest that it acts as a weak inhibitor of CYP3A4 and CYP2C19 (10, 11), probably without clinical relevance. In addition, Glycyrrhiza glabra acts as an inhibitor of P-gp, causing an increase in the intracellular concentration of daunorubicin, which is a substrate of P-gp (12), unlikeGlycyrrhiza uralensis whose major component glycyrrhizin has shown the opposite effect (13). Regarding the other component of the herbal preparation, the leaves of Mentha piperita traditionally known as peppermint (a plant of the Labiateae family) have been traditionally used for digestive disorders as a spasmolytic, antiemetic and sedative. In vitro studies suggest a weak inhibitor effect on the metabolism mediated by CYP3A4 and a stronger one on that mediated by CYP2C19 (14, 15).
In this case, we suggest that the sennosides act by saturating the efflux pumps, reducing the excretion of tacrolimus, which decreases its clearance by 80% when administered at the same time. We observed a 2.8-fold increase in their plasma concentration and a 2.1-fold increase in AUC. A metabolism interaction by Glycyrrhiza glabra orMentha piperita is unlikely to have a clinical impact due to their low proportion in the herbal preparation and their interaction profile, but we cannot rule it out due to the significant increase in exposure. The rapid recovery of clearance after the suspension of the herbal preparation suggests that it is not an enzymatic inhibition. Further studies are needed to analyze the relationship between efflux pumps and sennosides.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION:
BP and MS interpreted data. BP, MS, DG, NM, RL wrote the original draft. BP and MS performed the pharmacokinetic analysis. All authors revised the manuscript. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript.
FUNDING:
This report received no special funding.
COMPETING INTERESTS:
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
ETHICAL APPROVAL:
Not applicable.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT:
Additional data are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
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