Community composition
There was a significant effect of urbanisation on butterfly community composition (PERMANOVA: F 8,1 = 2.96; p = 0.013), with a clear separation between urban and rural sites in NMDS space (Figure 5A). There was also a significant effect of urbanisation on bird community composition (PERMANOVA: F 8,1 = 11.46, p = 0.001), with a clear separation between rural and urban sites in NMDS space (Figure 5B). Finally, there was a significant effect of urbanisation on vegetation community composition (PERMANOVA:F 8,1 = 5.93, p = 0.001), with a clear separation between urban and rural sites in NMDS space (Figure 5C). These results conclusively support our fourth hypothesis.