References
Abrahms, B., Jordan, N.B., Golabek, K.A., McNutt, J.W., Wilson, A.M., & Brashares, J.S. (2015). Lessons from integrating behaviour and resource selection: activity-specific responses of African wild dogs to roads.Animal Conservation ,19 ,247-255.https://doi.org/10.1111/acv.12235
Athreya, V., Odden, M., Linnell, J.D.C., Krishnaswamy, J., & Karanth, U. (2013). Big cats in our backyards: persistence of large carnivores in a human dominated landscape in India. PLoS One ,8 ,e57872.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0057872
Baker, A.D., & Leberg, P.L. (2018). Impacts of human recreation on carnivores in protected areas. PloS ONE ,13 ,e0195436.
Bateman, P.W., & Fleming, P.A. (2012). Big city life: carnivores in urban environments. J Zool ,287 , 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00887.x
Behr, D.M., Ozgul, A., & Cozzi, G. (2017). Combining human acceptance and habitat suitability in a unified socio-ecological suitability model: A case study of the wolf in Switzerland. J Appl. Ecol. ,54 ,1919-1929.https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12880
Belton, L.E., Cameron, E.Z., & Dalerum, F. (2018). Spotted hyaena visitation at anthropogenic sites in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. African Zoology, 53 ,113–118.https://doi.org/10.1080/15627020.2018.1518728
Belton, L.E., Cameron, E.Z., Dalerum, F. (2016). Spotted hyaena space use in relation to human infrastructure inside a protected area.PeerJ ,4 ,e2596.
Benson, J.F., Dougherty, K.D., Beier, P., Boyce, W.M., Cristescu, B., Gammons, D.J., … Dellinger, J.A. (2023). The ecology of human-caused mortality for a protected large carnivore.PNAS ,120 ,e2220030120. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2220030120
Boydston, E.E., Kapheim, K.M., Szykman, M., Holekamp, K.E. (2003). Individual variation in space use by female spotted hyenas. J Mammal., 84 ,1006-1018.
Boydston, E.E., Morelli, T.L., Holekamp, K.E. (2001). Sex differences in territorial behavior exhibited by the spotted hyena (Hyaenidae, Crocuta crocuta). Ethology ,107 ,369-385. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0310.2001.00672.x
Breck, S.W., Poessel, S.A., Mahoney, P., & Young, J.K. (2019). The intrepid urban coyote: a comparison of bold and exploratory behavior in coyotes from urban and rural environments. Nature Scientific Reports ,9 ,2104.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-38543-5
Burnham, K.P., & Anderson, D.R. (2002). Model selection and inference: A practical information-theoretic approach , 2nd Ed. Springer.
Carter, N.H., & Linnell, J.D.C. (2016). Co-adaptation is key to coexisting with large carnivores.TREE ,31 ,575-578.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2016.05.006
Chapron, G., Kaczensky, P., Linnell, J.D.C., Von Arx, M., Huber, D., Andren, H., … Boitani, L. (2014). Recovery of large carnivores in Europe’s modern human-dominated landscapes.Science ,346 ,6216.https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1257553
Crooks, K.R. (2002). Relative sensitivities of mammalian carnivores to habitat fragmentation. Conservation Biology ,16 ,488-502.https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00386.x
Crooks, K.R., Burdett, C.L., Theobald, D.M., Rondinini, C., Boitani, L. (2011). Global patterns of fragmentation and connectivity of mammalian carnivore habitat. Phil. Trans. B., 366 ,2642-2651.https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2011.0120
Cushman, S.A., McRae, B., Adriaensen, F., Beier, P., Shirley, M., & Zeller, K. (2013). Biological corridors and connectivity. In Macdonald DW, Willis, K.J. (eds) Key topics in conservation biology 2 . Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken, pp. 384-404.https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118520178.ch21
Devens, C.H., Hayward, M.W., Tshabalala, T., Dickman, A., McManus, J.S., Smuts, B., & Somers, M.J. (2019). Estimating leopard density across the highly modified human-dominated landscape of the Western Cape, South Africa.Oryx ,55 ,34-45.https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605318001473
Ditmer, M.A., Wittemyer, G., Breck, S.W., & Crooks, K.R. (2022). Defining ecological and socially suitable habitat for the reintroduction of an apex predator. Global Ecology and Conservation ,38 ,e02192.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2022.e02192
Fortin, D., Beyer, H.L., Boyce, M.S., Smith, D.W., Duchesne, T., & Mao, J.S. (2005). Wolves influence elk movements: Behavior shapes a trophic cascade in Yellowstone National Park.Ecology ,86 ,1320-1330.https://doi.org/10.1890/04-0953
Gebresenbet, F., Baraki, B., Yirga, G., Sillero-Zubiri, C., & Bauer, H. (2018). A culture of tolerance: coexisting with large carnivores in the Kafa Highlands, Ethiopia.Oryx ,52 ,751-760.https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605316001356
Ghoddousi, A., Buchholtz, E.K., Dietsch, A.M., Williamson, M.A., Sharma, S., Balkenhol, N., … Dutta, T. (2021). Anthropogenic resistance: accounting for human behavior in wildlife connectivity planning.One Earth ,4 ,39-48.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2020.12.003
Glickman, S. (1995). The spotted hyena from Aristotle to the Lion King: Reputation is everything. Social Research ,62 ,501-537.https://www.jstor.org/stable/40971108
Green, D.S., Johnson-Ulrich, L., Couraud, H.E., & Holekamp, K.E. (2018). Anthropogenic disturbance induces opposing population trends in spotted hyenas and African lions. Biodivers. Cons ,27 ,871-889.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-017-1469-7
Green, B., Anderson, J., & Whateley, T. (1984). Water and sodium turnover and estimated food consumption in free-living lions (Panthera leo) and spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta). J. Mammal. ,65 ,593-599.https://doi.org/10.2307/1380842
Hill, J.E., Devault, T.L., & Belant, J.L. (2020). A review of ecological factors promoting road use by mammals. Mammal Review ,51 ,214-227.https://doi.org/10.1111/mam.12222
Holekamp, K.E., & Dloniak, S.M. (2010). Chapter 6- Intraspecific variation in the behavioral ecology of a tropical carnivore, the spotted hyena. Adv. Study Behav. ,42 ,189-229.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-3454(10)42006-9
Holekamp, K.E., & Smale, L. (1995). Rapid change in offspring sex ratios after clan fission in the spotted hyena. Amer. Nat. ,145 ,261-278.https://doi.org/10.1086/285739
Honer, O.P., Wachter, B., East, M.L., & Hofer, H. (2002). The response of spotted hyenas to long-term changes in prey populations: functional response and interspecific kleptoparasitism. J. Animal Ecol. ,71 ,236-246.https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2656.2002.00596.x
James, M.M. (2022). Establishing the relationship between LULC changes, temperature, precipitation, and water level rise: Case study of Lake Nakuru Basin, Kenya. Thesis, University of Nairobi.
Johnson, H.E., Breck, S.W., Baruch-Mordo, S., Lewis, D.L., Lackey, C.W., Wilson, K.R., … Beckmann, J.P. (2015). Shifting perceptions of risk and reward: Dynamic selection for human development by black bears in the western United States. Biological Conservation ,187 ,164-172.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2015.04.014
Kolowski, J.M., Katan, D., Theis, K.R., & Holekamp, K.E. (2007). Daily patterns of activity in the spotted hyena. J. Mammal., 88 ,1017-1028.https://doi.org/10.1644/06-MAMM-A-143R.1
Koziarski, A., Kissui, B., & Kiffner, C. (2016). Patterns and correlates of perceived conflict between humans and large carnivores in Northern Tanzania. Biological Conservation ,199 ,41-50.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2016.04.029
Lamb, C.T., Ford, A.T., McLellan, B.N., Proctor, M.F., Mowat, G., Ciarniello, L., …Boutin, S. (2020). The ecology of human-carnivore coexistence.PNAS ,117 ,17876-17883.https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1922097117
Lute, M.L., & Carter, N.H. (2020). Are we coexisting with carnivores in the American West? Front. Ecol. Evol. ,8 ,48.https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2020.00048
Lute, M.L., Serenari, C., Drake, M.D., Peterson, M.N., Jensen, J., Belyea, C., …White, M. (2020). Modeling urban socio-ecological drivers of human-carnivore coexistence. J. Urban Ecol. ,6 ,juaa022.https://doi.org/10.1093/jue/juaa022
Macdonald, D.W., Johnson, P.J., Burnham, D., Dickman, A., Hinks, A., Sillero-Zubiri, C., & Macdonald, E.A. (2022). Understanding nuanced preferences for carnivore conservation: To know them is not always to love them. Global Ecol. Cons. ,37 ,e02150.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2022.e02150
Manfredo, M.J., Berl, R.E. W., Teel, T.L., & Bruskotter, J.T. (2021). Bringing social values to wildlife conservation decisions. Front. Ecol. Environ. ,19 ,355-362.https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.2356
Matsumoto-Oda, A. (2021). Bathing behaviour in spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) in Laikipia, Kenya: Two observational cases. J. East Afr Nat. Hist. ,110 ,87-92.https://doi.org/10.2982/028.110.0202
McClure, M., Dickson, B.G., & Nicholson, K.L. (2017). Modeling connectivity to identify current and future anthropogenic barriers to movement of large carnivores: A case study in the American southwest.Ecol. Evol. ,7 ,3762-3772.https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.2939
McInturff, A., Xu, W., Wilkinson, C.E., Dejid, N., & Brashares, J.S. (2020). Fence ecology: Frameworks for understanding the ecological effects of fences.BioScience ,70 ,971-985.https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biaa103
Morales-Gonzalez, A., Ruiz-Villar, H., Ordiz, A., Penteriani, V. (2020). Large carnivores living alongside humans: Brown bears in human-modified landscapes. Global Ecology and Conservation ,22 ,e00937.
Moss, W.E., Alldredge, M.W., & Pauli, J.N. (2016). Quantifying risk and resource use for a large carnivore in an expanding urban-wildland interface. J. Appl. Ecol., 53 ,371-378.https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12563
Murray, M.H., Sanchez, C.A., Becker, D.J., Byers, K.A., Worsley-Tonks, K.E.L., & Craft, M.E. (2019). City sicker? A meta-analysis of wildlife health and urbanization. Front. Ecol. Environ. ,17 ,575-583.https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.2126
Murray, M.H., Hill, J., Whyte, P., & Cassady St. Clair, C. (2016). Urban compost attracts coyotes, contains toxins, and may promote disease in urban-adapted wildlife.EcoHealth ,13 ,285-292.doi:10.1007/s10393-016-1105-0
Naha, D., Dash, K.S., Kupferman, C., Beasley, J.C., & Sathyakumar, S. (2021). Movement behavior of a solitary large carnivore within a hotspot of human-wildlife conflicts in India. Nature Scientific Reports ,11 ,3862.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-83262-5
Nisi, A.C., Suraci, J.P., Ranc, N., Frank, L.G., Oriol-Cotterill, A., Ekwanga, S, et al . (2021). Temporal scale of habitat selection for large carnivores: Balancing energetics, risk and finding prey.J. Animal Ecol. ,91 ,182-195.
Ogada, D.L. (2014). The power of poison: pesticide poisoning of Africa’s wildlife. Ann NY Acad Sci, 1322 ,1–20.https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12405
O’Neal Campbell, M. (2014). Urban planning for cougar presence in North America: Practices, challenges, and benefits. In Urban Planning: Practices, Challenges, and Benefits . Amado, M.P. (Ed). Nova Science Publishers
Parsons, A.W., Rota, C.T., Forrester, C.T., Baker-Whatton, M.C., McShea, W.J., Schuttler, S., …Kays, R. (2018). Urbanization focuses carnivore activity in remaining natural habitats, increasing species interactions. J. Appl. Ecol. ,56 ,1894-1904.https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13385
Poessel, S.A., Burdett, C.L., Boydston, E.E., Lyren, L.M., Alonso, R.S., Fisher, R.N., & Crooks, K.R. (2014). Roads influence movement and home ranges of a fragmentation-sensitive carnivore, the bobcat, in an urban landscape. Biological Conservation, 180 ,224-232.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2014.10.010
Reinking, A.K., Smith, K.T., Mong, T.W., Read, M.J., & Beck, J.L. (2019). Across scales, pronghorn select sagebrush, avoid fences, and show negative responses to anthropogenic features in winter.Ecosphere ,10 ,e02722.https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.2722
Ripple W.J., Estes J.A., Beschta, R.L., Wilmers, C.C., Ritchie, E.G., Hebblewhite, M., … Wirsing, A.J. (2014). Status and ecological effects of the world’s largest carnivores.Science ,343 ,1241484.https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1241484
Sanjayan, M.A., & Crooks, K.R. (2005). 11. Maintaining connectivity in urbanizing landscapes. In Nature in Fragments: The Legacy of Sprawl . Eds Elizabeth A. Johnson and Michael W. Klemens, New York Chichester, West Sussex: Columbia University Press. pp.239-262.https://doi.org/10.7312/john12778-014
Smith, J.A., Suraci, J.P., Clinchy, M., Crawford, A., Roberts, D., Zanette, L.Y., Wilmers, C.C. (2017). Fear of the human ‘super predator’ reduces feeding time in large carnivores. Proc Roy. Soc. B. ,284 , 20170433.https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.0433
Sonawane, C., Yirga, G., Carter, N.H. (2021). Public health and economic benefits of spotted hyenas Crocuta crocuta in a peri-urban system.J. Appl. Ecol. ,58 ,2892-2902.
Suraci, J.P., Nickel, B.A., Wilmers, C.C. (2020). Fine-scale movement decisions by a large carnivore inform conservation planning in human-dominated landscapes. Landscape Ecology ,35 ,1635-1649.
Suraci, J.P., Clinchy, M., Zanette, L.Y., Wilmers, C.C. (2019). Fear of humans as apex predators has landscape-scale impacts from mountain lions to mice. Ecology Letters ,22 ,1578-1586.https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.13344
Thorsen, N.H., Hansen, J.E., Stoen, O.-G., Kindberg, J., Zedrosser, A., Frank, S.C. (2022). Movement and habitat selection of a large carnivore in response to human infrastructure differs by life stage.Movement Ecology, 52.
Toverud, F.S.K. (2019). Linking high frequency GPS data with multiscale habitat selection; A study of an adaptable carnivore in a fragmented landscape. Masters thesis, Norwegian University of Life Sciences.
Trinkel, M., Fleischmann, P.H., Steindorfer, A.F., & Kastberger, G. (2004). Spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) follow migratory prey. Seasonal expansion of a clan territory in Etosha, Namibia. J. Zool. ,264 ,125-133.Doi:10.1017/S0952836904005588
Vasudev, D., Fletcher Jr., R.J., Srinivas, N., Goswami, V.R. (2023). Mapping the connectivity-conflict interface to inform conservation.PNAS ,120 ,e2211482119.
Wang, Y., Allen, M.L., Wilmers, C.C. (2015). Mesopredator spatial and temporal responses to large predators and human development in the Santa Cruz Mountains of California. Biological Conservation ,190 ,23-33.
Watts, H.E., & Holekamp, K.E. (2008). Interspecific competition influences reproduction in spotted hyenas. J. Zool. ,276 ,402-410.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00506.x
Watts, H.E., & Holekamp, K.E. (2007). Hyena societies. Current Biology , 17 .
Wilkinson, C.E., Brashares, J.S., Bett, A.C., & Kelly, M. (2021a). Examining drivers of divergence in recorded and perceived human-carnivore conflict hotspots by integrating participatory and ecological data. Front. Cons. Sci., 2 ,681769. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcosc.2021.681769
Wilkinson, C.E., McInturff, A., Kelly, M., & Brashares, J.S. (2021b). Quantifying wildlife responses to conservation fencing in East Africa.Biological Conservation, 256 ,109071.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109071
Williamson, M.A., Parrot, L. Carter, N.H., Ford, A.T. (2023). Implementation resistance and the human dimensions of connectivity planning. People and Nature .https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10525
Williamson, M.A., & Sage, A. (2020). Integrated spatial analysis for human-wildlife coexistence in the American West. Environmental Research Letters ,15 ,021001-1- 021001-7.
Xu, W., Gigliotti, L.C., Royaute, R., Sawyer, H., Middleton, A.D. 2023. Fencing amplifies individual differences in movement with implications on survival for two migratory ungulates. J. Animal Ecol. ,92 ,677-689.
Xu, W., Dejid, N., Herrmann, V., Sawyer, H., Middleton, A.D. (2020). Barrier Behaviour Analysis (BaBA) reveals extensive effects of fencing on wide-ranging ungulates. J. Appl. Ecol., 58 ,690-698.https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13806
Yirga, G., Gebresenbet, F., Deckers, J., & Bauer, H. (2014). Status of lion (Panthera leo) and spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) in Nechisar National Park, Ethiopia. Momona Ethiopian J. Science ,6 ,127-137.https://doi.org/10.4314/mejs.v6i2.109714
Young, J.K., Golla, J., Draper, J.P., Broman, D., Blankenship, T., Heilbrun, R. (2019). Space use and movement of urban bobcats.Animals ,9 ,275.https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9050275
Zeller, K.A., McGarigal, K., Cushman, S.A., Beier, P., Vickers, W., & Boyce, W.M. (2016). Using step and path selection functions for estimating resistance to movement: pumas as a case study.Landscape Ecology ,31 ,1319-1335.doi:10.1007/s10980-015-0301-6