Study site
Our study was conducted in Nakuru County, in the Rift Valley of southwest Kenya, from June 2018- October 2020. The study area (0°26’ S, 36°1’ E) includes two major wildlife protected areas: Lake Nakuru National Park (LNNP, 188 km2), which is one of two fully fenced national parks in Kenya, and Soysambu Conservancy (190 km2), which is mostly fenced and functions as both a wildlife conservancy and a livestock ranch with over 10,000 cattle, sheep, and goats. Fences used in both protected areas are typically ~2m tall and consist of parallel electrified wires, though some stretches of fence are composed of other materials, are in various states of maintenance, or have an additional component of woven wire mesh to reduce wildlife digging. The two large alkaline lakes in the region, Lake Nakuru and Lake Elementeita, are designated UNESCO World Heritage sites. The region supports many species of large mammals, including large carnivore species such as African lion (Panthera leo), spotted hyena, and leopard (Panthera pardus), and several mesocarnivore species, such as serval (Leptailurus serval) and black-backed jackal (Lupulella mesomelas). Many carnivore populations in the region remain stable despite heavy historical persecution (Ogutu et al. 2017). The region is characterized by woodland, savanna, and dense brush habitats, as well as two rainy and two dry seasons each year.