Gender differences in relationships between the variables
The multi-group SEM demonstrated a good fit for children of different genders, indicating its applicability across gender groups. We identified significant differences in the path coefficients between TCR, SR and SE for different genders. This provides clear evidence of the critical moderating role of gender in the relationships between TCR, SR, and SE. Specifically, closeness TCR had a less pronounced predictive effect on SR in boys, while conflict TCR had a less noticeable predictive effect on SE in girls. These gender differences enrich the understanding of gender role socialization (Maccoby, 1998) which reflects distinct strategies and emotional responses adopted by boys and girls when dealing with teachers (Spiltet al., 2010). Boys may rely more on other factors to develop SR, such as peer support (Rudasill, 2011) or focusing on activities (Walker & Graham, 2021), while girls may prioritize intimacy in TCR (e.g., closeness) to fulfill their social-emotional needs (Ewing & Taylor, 2009). Researchers often assume that the influence of TCR on SR and SE applies universally to all children (Sankalaiteet al., 2021). However, this finding adds depth to the literature regarding the influence of TCR on SR and SE, and it supports the idea that gender differences exist within these relationship patterns, encouraging researchers to consider the role of gender in the impact of TCR on SR and SE when developing differentiated support strategies to support children’s development.