Gender Differences
Given the close connection between TCR, SR, and SE, recent studies have shed light on consistent gender patterns among preschoolers in these behaviors (Walker & Graham, 2021). Grounded in gender role socialization, researchers posit that girls tend to foster more close relationships with teachers, while boys lean towards peer interactions (Walker & Graham, 2021). Consequently, TCR is closer with girls compared to boys, resulting in fewer conflicts (Zahn-Waxler et al., 2008). However, the gender role as a central focus in the connection between TCR, SR, and SE has yielded contradictory results. Some research indicates that girls tend to develop stronger behavioral regulation and emotional understanding when they have positive TCR (Ewing & Taylor, 2009). Conversely, boys in conflict TCR may exhibit more aggressive behavior (Brock & Curby, 2014), and these effects can be long-lasting (Jerome et al., 2009). However, other studies suggest that although gender differences exist in TCR, their impact on SR and SE (Horn et al., 2021) does not exhibit significant gender differences.
Meanwhile, these inconsistent findings extend to the moderating role of gender in SR, SE, and academic performance. Some studies point to girls outperforming boys in SR (Reilly et al., 2019), SE (Karaca & Bektas, 2022), and vocabulary (Bornstein et al., 2004). Conversely, boys tend to excel in mathematics (Lin & Powell, 2023). Potential factors contributing to the achievement gap between girls and boys include differences in children’s SR (George & Robitzsch, 2018) and SE (Veijalainen et al., 2019). For example, girls’ prosocial behavior tends to have a stronger relationship with academic knowledge than boys’ behavior (Bierman et al., 2009). Although multiple studies indicate that SR, SE, and academic performance are interconnected developmental processes (Salmon et al., 2016), there are inconsistent findings as well (Slot et al., 2020). Gender differences in SR may vary across different cultures, being more pronounced in the Western settings (Matthews et al., 2009) and less significant in Asian contexts (Wanless et al., 2011). No evidence suggesting that gender influences the relationship between SR and academic achievement (Montroy et al., 2014). Additionally, gender differences in academic performance are not pronounced in the 3-6 age range (Entwisle et al., 2007), and girls’ vocabulary advantage may diminish after age 6 (Bornstein et al., 2004). Moreover, in tasks related to numeracy (Hutchison et al., 2019) or SE (Doctoroff et al., 2016), there appear to be no significant gender differences.
In light of these conflicting findings concerning the moderating influence of gender on TCR, SR, SE, and academic achievement, further research is essential. Exploring whether gender differences universally act as moderating factors, which variables are moderated by these gender differences, and how different genders exhibit variations in these variables will provide valuable insights into the complex relationships among them.