2.1 Study population
The study was conducted in southwestern Germany (Landkreis Ludwigsburg, Baden-Württemberg, 48°53’43″N, 9°11’45″E) in an area of ~700 km2 at elevations ranging from 120 to 250 m above sea level. The landscape in the study area is composed of intensively used agricultural fields, meadows, orchards, and vineyards (56%), forests (25%), and urban settlements (17%), containing a high density and diversity of small structural elements and management regimes (Perrig et al. 2014; Fattebert et al. 2018; Fattebert et al. 2019; Hauenstein et al. 2019; Tschumi et al. 2020).
The little owl is a small (160 – 250 g) nocturnal bird breeding in tree cavities and nest boxes in orchards of traditional agricultural landscapes (Van Nieuwenhuyse et al. 2023). Fledglings disperse from their natal territory usually within 65 days after fledging (Perrig et al. 2017; Fattebert et al. 2019). First reproduction normally occurs at the age of one year, following the initial dispersal from the natal territory, and a stationary period during winter (Exo 1992; Hauenstein et al. 2019). Survival of adults and the quality of fledged offspring are strongly linked to habitat quality and food availability (Schaub et al. 2006; Thorup et al. 2010; Perrig et al. 2014; Michel et al. 2022).