2.1 Study population
The study was conducted in southwestern Germany (Landkreis Ludwigsburg,
Baden-Württemberg, 48°53’43″N, 9°11’45″E) in an area of
~700 km2 at elevations ranging from
120 to 250 m above sea level. The landscape in the study area is
composed of intensively used agricultural fields, meadows, orchards, and
vineyards (56%), forests (25%), and urban settlements (17%),
containing a high density and diversity of small structural elements and
management regimes (Perrig et al. 2014; Fattebert et al. 2018; Fattebert
et al. 2019; Hauenstein et al. 2019; Tschumi et al. 2020).
The little owl is a small (160 – 250 g) nocturnal bird breeding in tree
cavities and nest boxes in orchards of traditional agricultural
landscapes (Van Nieuwenhuyse et al. 2023). Fledglings disperse from
their natal territory usually within 65 days after fledging (Perrig et
al. 2017; Fattebert et al. 2019). First reproduction normally occurs at
the age of one year, following the initial dispersal from the natal
territory, and a stationary period during winter (Exo 1992; Hauenstein
et al. 2019). Survival of adults and the quality of fledged offspring
are strongly linked to habitat quality and food availability (Schaub et
al. 2006; Thorup et al. 2010; Perrig et al. 2014; Michel et al. 2022).